Help
Options
Didn't know it?
click below
click below
Knew it?
click below
click below
Don't Know
Remaining cards (0)
Know
retry
shuffle
restart
0:00
Embed Code - If you would like this activity on your web page, copy the script below and paste it into your web page.
Normal Size Small Size show me how
Normal Size Small Size show me how
PSY 2012
Final Exam
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Biological psychology | the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes. |
| Neuron | a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system. |
| Dendrite | the neuron’s bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body. |
| Axon | the neuron’s extension that passes messages through its branching terminal fibers that form junctions with other neurons, muscles, or glands. |
| Action potential | a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. |
| Threshold | the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse. |
| Synapse | the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap/cleft. |
| Neurotransmitters | chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse. |
| Reuptake | the sending neuron reabsorbs the excess neurotransmitters. |
| Endorphins | “morphine within”: natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure. |
| Nervous system | the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems. |
| Central nervous system (CNS) | the brain and spinal cord, the body’s decision maker. |
| Reflex | a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response. |
| Peripheral nervous system (PNS) | the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body. |
| Somatic nervous system | the division of the peripheral nervous system that voluntarily controls the body’s skeletal muscles. |
| Autonomic nervous system | the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs. |
| Sympathetic nervous system | the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations. |
| Parasympathetic nervous system | the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy. |
| Nerves | bundled axons that form neural “cables” connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs. |
| Sensory neurons | neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors of the brain and spinal cord. |
| Motor neurons | neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands. |
| Interneurons | neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs. |
| Endocrine system | the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream. |
| Hormones | chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues. |
| Adrenal | a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress. |
| Pituitary gland | the endocrine system’s most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands. |
| Brainstem | the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions. |
| Medulla | the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing. |
| Lesion | tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue. |
| Electroencephalogram (EEG) | an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain’s surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp. |
| Positron emission tomography (PET) scan | a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task. |
| Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) | a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy. |
| Functional MRI (fMRI) | a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function. |
| Thalamus | the brain’s sensory switchboard. Located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla. |
| Reticular formation | a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal. |
| Cerebellum | the “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; functions include some nonverbal learning, processing sensory input, and coordinating movement output and balance. |
| Limbic system | neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives. |
| Amygdala | two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotions such as rage and fear |
| Hypothalamus | a neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward. |
| Reward deficiency syndrome | a genetically disposed deficiency in the natural brain systems for pleasure and well being that leads people to crave whatever (alcohol, drugs, etc.) provides that missing pleasure or relieves negative feelings. |
| Cerebral | the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information processing center. |
| Frontal lobes | portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments. |
| Parietal lobes | portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position. |
| Occipital lobes | portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields. |
| Temporal lobes | portion of the cerebral cortex roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear. |
| Motor cortex | an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements. |
| Sensory cortex | area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations. |
| Association areas | areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions, such as learning, remembering, thinking, speaking, and integrating information. |
| Aphasia | impairment of language, usually caused by left-hemisphere damage to either Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding). |
| Broca’s area | controls language expression; an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech. |
| Wernicke’s area | controls language reception; a brain area, usually in the left temporal lobe, that is involved in language comprehension and expression. |
| Angular gyrus | involved in reading aloud that when damaged leaves a person able to speak and understand, but unable to read. |
| Plasticity | the brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience. |
| Neurogenesis | the formation of new neurons. |
| Corpus callosum | the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them. |
| Split brain | a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain’s two hemispheres by cutting the fibers connecting them. |
| Consciousness | our awareness of ourselves and our environment |
| Cognitive neuroscience | the interdisciplinary study of brain activity linked with our mental processes |
| Dual processing | the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks. |
| Visual perception track | enable us to recognize things and to plan future actions. |
| Visual action track | guides our moment-to-moment actions. |
| Selective attention | the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus |
| Cocktail party effect | your ability to attend to only one voice among many. |
| Inattentional blindness | failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere |
| Change blindness | failing to notice changes in the environment |
| Circadian rhythm | the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle |
| Sleep | periodic, natural loss of consciousness that is distinct from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation. |
| Stage 1 | marked by slow breathing, irregular brain waves and possibly hallucinations |
| Alpha waves | the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state. |
| Hallucinations | false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus. |
| Stage 2 | marked by the period appearance of sleep spindles |
| Sleep spindles | bursts of rapid, rhythmic brainwave activity. |
| Stage 3 | transition stage between stages 2 and 4 and onset of delta waves. |
| Stage 4 | marked by deep sleep and delta waves. |
| Delta waves | the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep. |
| Stage 5 | marked by the returning through stage 3 and 2 and then enter REM sleep. |
| REM sleep | rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active. |
| Insomnia | a sleep disorder characterized by recurring problems in falling or staying asleep. |
| Narcolepsy | a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The suffer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times. |
| Sleep apnea | a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings. |
| Night terrors | a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered. |
| Dream | a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind. |
| Manifest content | according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream. |
| Latent content | according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream. |
| REM rebound | the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation. |
| Psychoactive drug | a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods. |
| Tolerance | the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug’s effects. |
| Withdrawal | the discomfort and distress that follows discontinuing the use of an addictive drug. |
| Physical dependence | a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued. |
| Psychological dependence | a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions. |
| Addiction | compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences. |
| Depressants | drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions. |
| Barbiturates | drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing judgment. |
| Opiates | opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety. |
| Stimulants | drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, and the even more powerful cocaine, Ecstasy, and methamphetamine) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions. |
| Amphetamines | drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes. |
| Methamphetamine | a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels. |
| Ecstasy (MDMA) | a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition. |
| Hallucinogens | psychedelic drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input. |
| LSD | a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid. |
| Near-death-experience | an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death; often similar to drug-induced hallucinogens. |
| Marijuana | consist of the leaves and flowers of the hemp plant. |
| THC | the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations. |
| Personality | an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting. |
| Free association | in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing. |
| Unconscious | according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware. |
| Psychoanalysis | Freud’s theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions. |
| Id | contains a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy, that according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. |
| Ego | the largely conscious, “executive” part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. |
| Superego | the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations. |
| Psychosexual stages | the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id’s pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones. |
| Oedipus complex | according to Freud, a boy’s sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hated toward the rival father. The girl’s version is called Electra. |
| Identification | the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents’ values into their developing superegos. |
| Fixation | according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved. |
| Defense mechanisms | in psychoanalytic theory, the ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality. |
| Repression | in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness. |
| Collective unconscious | Carl Jung’s concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species’ history. |
| Projective test | a personality test that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one’s inner dynamics. |
| Rorschach inkblot test | the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots that seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots. |
| Self-actualization | according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one’s potential. |
| Unconditional positive regard | according to Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward another person. |
| Self-concept | all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, “Who am I?” |
| Trait | a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports. |
| Factor analysis | a statistical procedure that has been used to identify clusters of test items that tap basic components of intelligence. |
| Personality inventory | a questionnaire on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits. |
| Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) | the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes. |
| Empirically derived test | a test developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups. |
| Social-cognitive perspective | views behaviors as influenced by the interaction between people’s traits (including their thinking) and their social context. |
| Reciprocal determinism | the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment. |
| Personal control | the extent to which people perceive control over their environment rather than feeling helpless. |
| External locus of control | the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate. |
| Internal locus of control | the perception that you control your own fate. |
| Learned helplessness | the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events. |
| Tyranny of choice | brings information overload and a greater likelihood that we will regret over some of the unchosen options. |
| Positive psychology | the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive. |
| Self | in contemporary psychology, assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions. |
| Spotlight effect | overestimating others’ noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders. |
| Self-esteem | one’s feelings of high or low self-worth. |
| Self-serving bias | a readiness to perceive oneself favorably. |
| Defensive self-esteem | fragile; focuses on sustaining itself, which makes failures and criticism feel threatening. |
| Secure self-esteem | less fragile; less contingent on external evaluations. |
| Psychological disorders | deviant, distressful, and dysfunctional patterns of thoughts, feelings, and actions. |
| Medical model | the concept that psychological disorders have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and, in most cases, cured, often through treatment in a hospital. |
| DSM-IV-TR | the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, updated as a 2000 “text revision”; a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders. |
| Mood disorders | psychological disorders characterized by emotional extremes. |
| Major depressive disorder | a mood disorder in which a person experiences, in the absence of drugs or a medical condition, two or more weeks of significantly depressed moods, feelings of worthlessness, and diminished interest or pleasure in most activities. |
| Mania | a mood disorder marked by a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state. |
| Bipolar disorder | a mood disorder in which the person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania. |
| Schizophrenia | a group of sever disorders characterized by disorganized and delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and actions. Literally translated means “split mind.” Too much dopamine. |
| Psychotic disorder | a psychological disorder in which a person loses contact with reality, experiencing irrational ideas and distorted perceptions. |
| Delusions | false beliefs, often of persecution or grandeur, which may accompany psychotic disorders. |
| Hallucinations | sensory experiences without sensory stimulation |
| Catatonia | remaining motionless for hours and then become agitated |
| Positive symptoms of schizophrenia | hallucinations, talk in disorganized and deluded ways, and exhibit inappropriate laughter, tears, or rage. |
| Negative symptoms of schizophrenia | toneless voices, expressionless faces, or mute and rigid bodies. |
| Anxiety disorders | psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety. |
| Generalized anxiety disorder | an anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal. |
| Panic disorder | an anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations. |
| Phobias | an anxiety disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object, activity, or situation. |
| Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) | an anxiety disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and/or actions (compulsions). |
| Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) | an anxiety disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience. |
| Post-traumatic growth | positive psychological changes as a result of struggling with extremely challenging circumstances and life crises. |
| Somatoform disorder | psychological disorder in which the symptoms take a somatic (bodily) form without apparent physical cause. |
| Conversion disorder | a rare somatoform disorder in which a person experiences very specific genuine physical symptoms for which no physiological basis can be found. |
| Hypochondriasis | a somatoform disorder in which a person interprets normal physical sensations as symptoms of a disease. |
| Dissociative disorders | disorders in which conscious awareness becomes separated (dissociated) from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings. |
| Dissociative identity disorder (DID) | a rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities. |
| Personality disorders | psychological disorders characterized by inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning. |
| Antisocial personality disorder | a personality disorder in which the person (usually a man) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends and family members. May be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist. |
| Barnum Effect | The tendency to accept favorable descriptions of one's personality that could really be applied to almost anyone |
| Person-situation debate | Arguments as to whether people's behavior is more strongly influenced by temporary external influences or by enduring inner influences |
| Melatonin | Bright light inhibits our feelings of sleepiness by influencing the production of this. |
| Dopamine | One biological basis for addiction involves brain activity in this reward system. |
| Self-fulfilling prophecy | When children are told that certain classmates have learning disabilities, they may behave in ways that inhibit the success of those students in the classroom. |
| Reciprocal determinism | According to Bandura, this involves multidirectional influences among behaviors, internal personal factors, and environmental events. |
| Sleep Theories | Sleep protects.sleep recuperates. sleep helps remembering. sleep promotes growth. |
Created by:
JacobGant
Popular Psychology sets