A&P TCN Excelsior
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| Two body regions | Axial & Appendicular
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| Axial Region contains | head, neck & trunk (contains dorsal & ventral cavities)
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| Dorasal Cavity | cranial cavity (contains the brain)
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| Ventral Cavity | thoraic & abdominaopelvic
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| Dorsal& ventral | two body cavities
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| contains upper & lower limbs | appendicular Region
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| posterior | farther from the back
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| caudal | toward the tail
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| toward the front | Anterior
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| distal | farther from trunk or attachment (ft vs knees)
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| proximal | closer to the trunk or attachment spo (knees vs feet)
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| lateral | closer away from midline (ears vs eyes)
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| closer to midline eyes vs ears) | medial
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| lying on back, face up | supine
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| transverse section aka horizontal | superior or inferior portions
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| lying on stomach, face down | prone
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| parasagittal plane | unequal or right parts; lies parallel to the midsagittal plane but to the left or right of the idline; it divides the body into unequal left & right parts
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| coronal | anterior or posterior parts
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| sagittal plane | divides body into left & right parts
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| midline, equal parts | midsagittal section
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| ipsilateral | on same side
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| contralateral | on opposite side
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| Thoraic | in ventral covity; contains heart, lungs & thymus
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| in ventral cavity; contains abd. cavity & pelvic cavity | abdominopelvic
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| pelvic cavity contains | bladder, urethra, reproductive organs, distal portions of the large intestines
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| anatomical position | standing, feet forward, palms turned facing forward, thumbs towards the outside
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| Anterior | refers to a body part that is more toward the front of the body then another part. The eyes vs the brain
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| Lateral | refers to a body part being closer to the side of the body than another part with respect to an imaginary midline dividing the body into equal right and left halves. The ear vs eye
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| Proximal | refers to a body part that is closer to the point of attachment or closer to the trunk of the body than another part. The knee vs the foot
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| Distal | refers to a body part that is farther from the point of attachment or farther from the truck of the body then another part. The foot vs knee
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| Posterior | refers to a body part that is more toward the back of the body and then another part. The brain vs the eyeballs
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| Superior | refers to a body part that is above another part. The trunk vs the legs
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| Inferior | refers to a body part that is below another part. The feet versus the legs
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| Superficial | refers to a body part that is closer to the surface than another part. The skin versus the skeleton
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| deep | refers to a body part that is more internal and farther from the surface than another part. The skeleton versus the skin
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| Ipsilateral | a body part that is on the same side of the body. Right arm and right leg are
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| Contralateral | refers to a body part and it is on the opposite side of the body. Right arm and left leg
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| Medial | refers to a body part that is closer to the imaginary midline dividing the body into equal left & right halves. The eyes vs the ears.
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| cell | structural & functional unit of living organ., contains a nucleus & vaarity of organelles enclosed by a limiting membrane.
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| centriole | minute body found near the nucleus of the cell, active in cell division
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| cilia | tiny, hairlike projections on cell surfaces that move in a wavelike manner
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| chromatin | structures in the nucleus that carry the herediatary factors (genes)
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| chromosomes | barlike bodies of tightly coiled chromatin; visible during cell division.
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| cytoplasm | the cellular material surrounding the nucleus & enclosed by the plasma membrane
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| endoplamic reticulum | membranous network of tubular or saclike channels in the cytoplasm of a cell; 2 kinds-smooth & rough
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| smooth ER | part of ER that is free of ribosomes
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| Rough ER | Part of ER that is studded with ribosomes
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| golggi apparatus | membranous system clos to the cell nucleus that packages protein secretions for export, packages enzymes into lysosomes for cellular use, and modifies proteins destined to become part of a cell membrane
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| lysosomes | organellees that originate from the Golgi apparatus and contain strong digestive enzymes
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| microvilli | tiny projections on the free surfaces of some epithelial cells; increase surface area for absorption.
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| mitochondria | cytoplasmic organelles responsible for ATP generation for cellular activites.
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| nucleus | control center of a cell; contains genetic material
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| nuclear envelope | the double membrane barrier in the cell nucleus
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| nucleoli | dense spherical bodies in the cell nucleus involved with ribosomal aubunit synthesis & storage
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| plasma membrane | membrane, composed of 3 lamina layers, that encloses cell contents; outer limiting cell membrane
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| 4 stages of cell cycle | G1, s, G2 & M
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| 5th stage of cell cycle | G0. is where the cell reamins indefinitely until it begins the cell cycle again
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| Do cells ever leave G0 | Some cells DO NOT leave this stage
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| Do cells skip cell cycle G0 | some cells that go through division rapidly skip this stage, such as bone marrow
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| Cells begin their cell cycle by entering this | Interphase
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| interphase | the cell perpares for division by duplication DNA
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| interphase includes the stages | G1, S & G2
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| golgi appartatus | is a sorting station
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| G1 | the cell synthesizes DNA & protein & increases organellee & cytoskeletal elements. The chromatin consists of long slender rods jumbled together in the nucleus.
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| S | the synthesis stage. Nuclear DNA replicates along its centrioles, which are small structures, made up mostly of microtubules, that associate with a chromosome's DNA. the chromatin begin to coil, so that they shorten.
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| G2 | RNA & protein are synthesized. Proof reading also occurs: the Dna replicated in this phase is checked for mistakes.
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| A signal to self destruct | apotosis
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| the difference betwen G1 & G2 | G1 DNA & protein are made, In G2 RNA & protein are made
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| M stage | cell divides into 2 identical cells through divisions of the nucleus (mitosis) & cytoplasm (sytokensis). Over 5 different stages, the centioles pull the chromosomes apart & the cell divides in two.
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| 1st prophase | duplicated chromosomes appear & then split into identical halves(chromatids), attaches by spindles(centromeres). the nuclear membrane disappears & spindle fibers form in cytoplasm, radiating from 2 centrioles located at opposite poles of the cell
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| 2 identical halves of chromosomes | chromatids
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| spindles that attach chromatids | centromeres
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| metaphase | the spindle fibers pull the centromeres, aligning them in the middle of the spindle or the equatorial plate of the cell. The 2 chromatids are clearly visible in this stage
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| Anaphase | the centromeres split, pulling sister chromatids to opposite sides of the cell. by the end- 46 chromosomes lie at each side of the cell. When chromosomes are separated, each sister chromatid is considered a new chromosome
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| telophase | a nuclear membrane forms around a group of 46 chromosomes. the spindle fibers disappear, and the chromosomes uncoil. Cytokensis occurs 7 the cytoplasm divides into equal parts. 2 identical cells have been formed.
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| After the telophase | each new cell moves back to the G0 stode 7 is ready to begin the process again after this stage
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| epithelial tissues | covers all body surface, there are 3 major types, and are based in the number of cell layers in each type. And then 3 types are based on their cell shape.
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| simple epithelium | one cell layer thick
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| stratified epithelium | are composed of multiple cell layers.
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| pseudostratified spithelium | consists of a signle cell ayer, it appears multilayered. the arrangement of the nuclei gives a stratified appearance.
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| squamous | epithelial cell shape, flat; resemle paving stones or floor tiles
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| cuboidal | epithlial cell shape, cubelike; about wide as they are tall
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| columnar | epithelial cell shape, tall and thin, heights greater than their widths.
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| How to name epithelial cells | first is how many layers and the second name indicated the shape of the cell at the free surface
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| transitional epithelial cells | are found in the squamos epithelial that must undergo streatching such as the urinary bladder, depending on the degree of the stretch at any given time they may appear squamous, cuboidal, or colomnar shape.
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| connective tissue | binds body parts together, support & protection, framework, fill in spaces, store fat, produce blood cells, protect against infections, & help repair tissue damage. spaced farther apart and have more matric between them.
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| matrix | intracellular material; found between connective tissue; consists of fibers & a ground substance whose consistancy caries (fluid/blood, semisolid/cartilage, solid/bone)
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| Connective tissues | are usually able to divide & replace themselves. have good bld supplies and are well nurioushed.
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| Muscle tissue | one of 2 basic tissue types that can respond to stimuli. its response is contraction. Has 3 types of tissue.
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| Muscle tissue types | skeletal, cardiac, & smooth
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| skeletal tissue | a muscle tissue; 40% of the bodys weight, responsible for locomotion, facial expressions, posture, resp. movements. Under control by voluntary, conscious, control by the nervous system.
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| Muscle tissue | one of 2 basic tissue types that can respond to stimuli. its response is contraction. Has 3 types of tissue.
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| Muscle tissue types | skeletal, cardiac, & smooth
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| skeletal tissue | a muscle tissue; 40% of the bodys weight, responsible for locomotion, facial expressions, posture, resp. movements. Under control by voluntary, conscious, control by the nervous system.
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| smooth muscle | type of muscle tissue; found on walls of holow organs, internal muscles of eyes, wall of bld vessels. performs-propelling urine, mixing food in the stomach & intestines, dilating/constricting the pupils, regulating flow of bld.
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| cardiac muscle | type of muscle found only in the heart. its contractions provide the major force for moving bld through the circulatory system.
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| collagen, elastin, chrondroitin, & hyaluronic acid | intracellular substances formed by connective tissues
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| collagen, elastin | giant fiborous molecules, may be arranges as a bundle or a mesh
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| chondrotin | tough, flexible material, major component of cartilage
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| hyaluronic acid | forms a gel that cements cells together ans acts as a cushion.
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| conective tissue major catergories | connective tissue proper, cartilage, bone, blood-lymphoid tissue & bls forming tissue, adipose tissue
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| nervous tissue | consists of neurons & neuroglial cells
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| neurons | nerve cells, funcional cells of nervous tissue, transmit electrical signals. Consists of 3 principal parts
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| 3 principal parts of neurons | soma, dendrites, & one axon or nerve fiber
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| soma | contains the nucleus, principle part in a neuron
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| dendrites | extendes from the soma, recieve informationand transmit towards the soma & one axon, principle part of a neuron
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| axon | transmits informations away from the soma, principal part of a neuron
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| neuroglial cells | support neurons and are smaller and more numerous than neurons.
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| lacation of nervous tissue | brain, spinal cord, 7 peripheral nerves
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| functions of nervous tissue | detect stimuli, respond & transmit information to other cells.
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| key features of nervous tissue | few neurons with cytoplasmic extensions and multiple neuroglial cells.
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| otic | ear
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| nasal | nose
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| oral | mouth
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| cephalic | head
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| frontal | forehead
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| orbital | eye cavity
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| cervical | neck
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| acromial | point of shoulder
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| axillary | armpit
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| mammary | breast
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| brachial | arm
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| antecubital | front of elbow
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| antebrachial | forearm
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| buccal | cheek
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| mental | chin
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| sternal | breastbone
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| pectoral region | chest
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| coxal | hip
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| abdominal | abdomen
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| genital | reproductive organs
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| carpal | wrist
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| palmar | palm
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| digital | finger
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| tarsal | ankle
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| inguinal | groin
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| umbilical | navel
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| cural | leg
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| pedal | foot
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| occipital | back of head
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| acromial | point of shoulder (posterior region of the body)
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| vertebral | spinal column(posterior region of the body)
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| brachial | arm (posterior region of the body)
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| dorsal | back (posterior region of the body)
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| cubital | elbow (posterior region of the body)
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| lumbar | lower back (posterior region of the body)
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| sacral | between hips (posterior region of the body)
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| gluteal | buttocks (posterior region of the body)
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| perineal | (posterior region of the body)
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| femoral | thigh (posterior region of the body)
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| popliteal | back of knee (posterior region of the body)
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| crural | leg (posterior region of the body)
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| plantar | sole (posterior region of the body)
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| Right hypochondriac region | contains the liver
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| epigastric region | contains the pancreas & stomach
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| Left hypochondriac region | contains the spleen
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| Right lumbar region | contains the ascending colon of large intestine
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| umbilical region | containing the transverse colon and small intestine
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| Left lumbar region | contains the descending colon
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| Right iliac region | containing the appendix
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| hypo gastric region | containing the rectum and urinary bladder
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| Left iliac region | containing the descending colon and small intestine
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| Plasma membrane | a bilayer of phospholipids each cell has this as its outer boundary
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| The plasma membrane contains | membrane proteins embedded in it and attached to its surfaces
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| Intrinsic membrane proteins | are tightly associated with the membrane and in some cases span it from one side to another
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| Extrinsic membrane proteins | are less tightly attached and it may be removed by chemical treatments that do not dissolve the membrane
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| Glycoproteins | strands of sugar molecules are attached to the proteins
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| Receptors | for detection of chemical messages from other cells
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| Transport proteins | that determine what goes into and out of the cell
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| adhesion molecules | that allow the cells of a tissue to recognize one another and stick together
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| cytoplasm | contains a number of characteristic organelle, the intracellular fluid
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| Nucleus | contains the DNA together with molecules that affect specific parts of the genetic code
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| Endoplasmic reticulum | an internal membrane system that contains proteins and lipids destined for various metabolic fate within the cell or secretion to the exterior or for incorporation into the plasma membrane
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| ribosomes | molecular machines composed of protein and ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA)
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| ribosomes synthesize | proteins based on codes delivered to the home in the form of messenger RNA (mRNA)
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| Golgi apparatus | closely stacked sacs of ER that serve as a sorting station for proteins synthesized by ribosomes attached to the ER, these proteins are labeled for various destinations in the cell
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| Mitochondria | or rod like structures consisting of a double bilayer membrane, the site of the reactions of terminal oxidative metabolism, where the energy from oxidation of foodstuffs is applied to the synthesis of ATP
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| atp | the general chemical energy source for energy requiring cellular processes
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| adp | in energy depleted form of the same molecule
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| Cytoskeleton | the scaffold of filaments within the cytoplasm that allow the cell to maintain a form and to move
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| Three basic types of filaments | microfilaments, intermediate filament and microtubules
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| Differentiation | a process in which un specialized cells acquire specific cellular structures and become specialized to perform specific function
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| Tissues | consist of differentiated cells that share similar structures and cooperate to perform a common function
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| In the earliest stages of embryonic development | the unspecialized cells of the embryo separate into three layers
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| three layers the embryo separate into | ectoderm ,endoderm ,mesoderm
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| four specific tissue type | nervous,epithelial , muscle and connective
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| Nervous tissue and epithelial tissue rise | ectoderm & endoterm
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| Muscle and connect to tissue rise from | mesoderm
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| neurons | generate and conduct electrical impulses and communicate with other cells by way of chemical messages and glia
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| glia | supports the neurons and maintains a favorable environment for their functions
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| Epithelial tissue | consist of sheets of cells
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| Epithelial cells also form | the endocrine glands and exocrine glands
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| Indo Clinton glands | secreted chemical messengers called hormones into the blood
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| Exocrine glands | secrete substances by way of ducts to the exterior
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| epithelia are classified into two basic structural types | simple and stratified
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| Simple epithelia | one cell layer thick
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| Stratified epithelia | are composed of multiple cell layers
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| Pseudo-stratified | some simple epithellia are said to be this, they do consist of one cell layer but some of the cells are not tall enough to reach all the way from one side of the sheet to the other
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| epithelial cells of body surfaces are classified according to their | shape
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| squamous cells | flattened and resemble a paving stones
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| cuboidal cells | are as wide as they are tall
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| Columnar cells | with heights greater than their width
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| Transitional epithelial cells | found in squamous cells that must undergo stretching, as in the urinary bladder
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| Muscle tissue | is specialized for contraction & generation of force
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| Muscle tissue can be divided into | skeletal, cardiac, smooth
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| Skeletal muscle | is attached to the bony skeleton and moves body parts relative to one another
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| Cardiac muscle | which makes up the walls of the heart and is responsible for circulating blood to all parts of the body
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| Smooth muscle | surrounds hollow internal organs including the stomach and intestine, the air passages in the lungs, and blood vessels including the iiris of the eye
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| Connective tissue | holds body parts together and contributes to the structural integrity of the other tissue types
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| The major types of intra cellular substances formed by connective tissues are | collagen, elastin chondroitin, and hyaluronic acid
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| Collagen and elastin | Giant, fibrous molecules that may be arranged in bundles or as a mesh
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| chondroitin | is a tough flexible material that is a major component of cartilage one form of connective tissue
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| hyaluronic acid | forms a gel that cements cells together and acts as a cushion
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| Fibroblasts | the intracellular materials are secreted by characteristic cells called this
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| Connective tissue includes | connectice tissue proper, cartilage, bone, blood lymphoid tissue and blood forming tissue, adipose tissue
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| Connective tissue proper | composes a loosely arranged structural framework for almost every tissue
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| tendons and ligaments | connective tissue proper, are composed mainly of bundles of collegagen & elastin fiber is all with the same orientation
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| tendons | the structures that connect the skeletal muscles with the bony skeleton
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| Ligaments | the structures that hold joint together
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| Cartilage | strong flexible smooth material composed of collagen & chondroitin that poured some soft tissues covers the end of bones and provides bearing surfaces for joints
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| Cartilage is secreted by cells called | chondrocytes
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| Bone is and role | is a hard rigid material that makes up the bulk of the adult skeleton, majority of bone mass is composed of calcium phosphate, its role is support in movement, reservoir of calcium and phosphate, contains a bone marrow
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| bone marrow | Is the site of synthesis of blood cells in adults
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| Compact or dense bone | the outer covering of bones, surrounds a core of cancellous or spongy bone
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| osteons | units that compact bone is composed of
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| haversian canal | each osteon surrounds a central one of these, contains blood vessels and nerves
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| lamellae | concentric ring of mineralized intracellular substances that surround the haversian canal
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| lacunae | these spaces are between the lamellae which are occupied by osteocytes
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| Osteocytes | bone cells
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| Two types of osteocytes | osteoblast & osteoclasts
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| Osteoblast | synthesize bone
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| osteoclasts | break down bone read
canaliculi
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| cancelllous bone consist of | meshwork of mineralized trabeculae with bone marrow filling the spaces
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| Blood | consist of plasma some organic solutes, dissolved gases and proteins, and formed elements
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| Plasma | a fluid component containing salts
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| erythrocytes | red blood cells
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| leukocytes | white blood cells
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| thrombocytes | platelets
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| Functions of blood | transport oxygen and nutrients to tissues, to carry away carbon dioxide and other end products of metabolism for disposal and to distribute hormones and elements of the immune system throughout the body
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| Adipose tissue | specialized for storage of fat, and energy reserve, cushion internal organs, reduces heat loss through the skin, gives the body its contour and consist adipocytes
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| adipocytes | derived from fibroblasts, are found in adipose tissue, the interior is dominated by a droplet of fat
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| Movement of fat between adipose tissues & the bloodstream is controlled by | the nervous and endocrine systems
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| Organ | a structure that is composed of two or more tissues and carry out multiple functions
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| Different major organ systems | nervous, musculoskeletal, cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive,excretory,lymphatic, reproductive,endocrine, immune, integumentary
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| The heart is blank to the arms | medial
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| The wrist is blank to the elbow | distal
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| The elbow is blank between the shoulder & the wrist | intermediate
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| The lungs are blank to the ribs | deep
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| Sagittal/parasagittal plane | a vertical plane dividing the body into two sides
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| Transverse plane | a poor zonal plane that divides the body into superior and inferior parts
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| Frontal plane | a vertical plane that divides the body into dorsal and ventral parts
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| Dorsal cavity | includes cranial cavity and spinal canal
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| ventral cavity | includes thoracic cavity and abdominopelvic cavity
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| Scrotal cavity | only present in males
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| Formation of a bilayer membrane | a bilayer can be formed by pure phospholipid; cholesterol improves its stability but it is not a necessary component; proteins are essential for many of the functions of cellular membranes but by themselves can not form a membrane
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| Which cellular organelles are composed of or bounded by bilayer lipid membranes | plasma membrane, nucleus, er,golgi apparatus and mitochondria
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| The largest organ | the skin
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| The skins functions | protection, Thermo regulation, somatosensory perception, vitamin D synthesis.
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| Vitamin D | is actually a hormone, is important in calcium homeostasis
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| Two major components of the skin | epidermis and dermis
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| The epidermis | a stratified squamous epithelium that contains; keratinocytes, melanocytes, and immunocytes
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| Keratinocytes | produce the protein keratin, responsible for the wear resistant and waterproof qualities of the skin
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| Melanocytes | produce melanin, responsible for skin color
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| Immunocytes | provide a first line of defense against invasion by microbes fungi and parasites
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| Layers of the epidermis | stratum basale or stratum germinativum; stratum spinosum; stratum granulosum; (hands & feet- stratum lucidum); stratum corneum or cornified layer
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| keratinocytes last | about two weeks
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| Stratum basale or stratum Germinativum | new keratinocytes are continuously produced from stem cells in this deepest layer
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| Stratum granulosum | as cells leave the stratum spinosome and this, they begin to synthesize & store keratohyalin
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| keratohyalin | a precursor of keratin
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| In the palms and soles, keratinocytes that have begun to synthesize keratin precursors leave the stratum granulosum and to form this | stratum lucidum
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| Stratum lucidum consists of | cells filled with droplets of elaidin
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| elaidin | a translucent substance formed from keratohyalin
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| Stratum lucidum is absent | in the thinner, hairy skin that covers most of the body surface
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| The outer most layer of the epidermis | stratum corneum or cornified layer
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| Stratum corneum | 20 to 30 cells deep, consist entirely of dead keratinocytes filled with keratin
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| sebaceous glands | secrete sebum, holocrine glands, and inactive before
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| sebum | oil, moisturizes and contains antimicrobial chemicals
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| holocrine glands | the secretion is formed as a product of the breakdown of dead gland cells
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| The increase in sebum secretion at puberty is stimulated by | an increase in androgen production
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| sudoriferous glands | sweat glands; two main types: eccrine and apocrine sweat glands; both are merocrine glands
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| eccrine sweat glands | are scattered throughout the body surface but are most dense on the palms and soles; tubular structures; main role to promote heat loss from the body surface; controlled by the nervous system part of the process of thermal regulation
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| merocrine glands | part of the secretory cells themselves appears in the secretion
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| apocrine sweat glands | are confined to the axilla, pubic region, and areolae; they begin to function only after puberty and when the secretion is acted on by bacteria it causes body odor
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| axilla | armpit
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| areolae | pigmented areas of the breast
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| mammory glands | located within the breast of females are modified sweat glands; lactation is under endocrine control
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| ceruminous glands | are located in the external auditory meatus ( ear canal) and secretes cerumen
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| cerumen | aka earwax, a protective coating for the meatus.
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| meatus | ear canal
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| Two layers of dermis can be distinguished | papillary and reticular layer
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| Papillary layer | comprises the superficial 20% of the dermis, nipple, plays an important role in heat loss, responsible for fingerprints
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| reticular layer | comprises the remaining 80% of , composed of a network of crisscrossing collagen and elastin fibers that give the skin its elasticity and resilience
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| Hypo dermis | subcutaneous layer containing loose connective tissue, arterioles, venules, and adipose tissue
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| Heat can be lost to the environment through | radiation, convection, conduction
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| Radiation | transfer by a electro magnetic radiation
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| Convection | air movement across the skin surface
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| Conduction | direct heat flow
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| First degree burn | involve mainly damage to the epidermis, required no special treatment, and typically heal rapidly without scarring
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| Second degree burns | akapartial thickness burns, in that ball the some damage to the dermis, blisters, healing is slower, greater chance of scar formation, may need skin grafts.
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| Third degree burns | aka full thickness burns, both the dermis & subcutaneous tissue are affected, serious challenge to healing & homeostasis, infection, body surface affected reaches 20% patient high chance of dying, tx, electrolyte replacement, antibiotic, skin grafts.
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| melanin | absorbs some of the UV energy
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| Basal cell carcinoma | arises from cells in the basal layer does not spread rapidly and tends not to metastasize
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| squamous cell carcinoma | arises from cells in the stratum spinosum, higher probability of metastasis
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| Malignant melanoma | arises from melanocytes or pigmented moles, some spread rapidly in metastasize freely to other body tissues
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|
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| The cell type in the skin that is responsible for the skin color is called | melanocyte
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|
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| The most abundant type of cell in the epidermis is called | keratinocyte
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|
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| The two most common protein molecules in the dermis | collagen & elastin
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|
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| Hair and nails are durable because they possess an abundance of this protein | keratin
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|
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| The skin protects the body from dehydration | the dead layers of epithelial cells form a tough barrier that is covered with sebum
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| sebum | a mixture that seals in moisture and repels bacteria
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| The skin protects the body from the invasion of bacteria | the immunocytes present in the epithelium protect against any bacteria that invade the skin
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| nevi | pigmented moles
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| nevi have a significant probability of giving rise to melanoma | they have plenty of melanocytes, represent areas of abnormal growth, they might be composed of cells that have already undergone changes to become cancer cells
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| In the anatomical position | The head is erect with head facing forward
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| The appendicular region of the body consists of | the arms, hands, legs, & ft
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| A midsagittal section divides the body into | equal rt &left halves
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| the diaphram | separates the thoracic & abdominal cavities
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| 2 structures on the same side of the body are | Ipsilateral
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| The cellular organelle where ATP is synthesized is the | mitochondrion
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| A difference rough & smooth ER is that | rough ER has ribosomes associated with it.
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| stem cells | are found in tissues that exhibit regeneration.
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| An epithelial cell type that can tolerate stretching (as in the urinary bladder) | is called transitional.
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| the framework for almost every tissue is composed of | connective tissue proper
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| the two subdivisons of blood are | plasma & formed elements
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| Organs | are composed of 2 or more tissues
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| the cells in the skin responsible for color | melanocytes
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| skin cells are renewed from the deepest epidermal layer, called the | stratum germanitivum
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|
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| epidermal glands | mammary glands are modified sweat glands
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|
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| the resilient response of the skin to mechanical distortion | ia attributed to the connective tissue of the dermis.
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|
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| homeostasis in the human body is valuable because | it provides a regulated enviroment in which cells can perform their specialized functions.
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|
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| isotopes of physiologically important elemants reveal that | there is a turnover in the composition of all the body constituents.
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|
||||
| according to the principle of negative feedback | detection of deviation from the set point value drives changes that minimize the deviation
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|
||||
| a determinant of the rate of diffusion | the greater the distance, the slower the the rate of diffusion. the diffusion coefficent is how easily the particles move through the medium. the greater the cross-sectional area available, the faster the diffusion.
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|
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| The Nernst equation ( written for k+ for example, E K+=RT/zF in ({K+} extracellular/{k+} intracellular expresses a mathematical relationship between | electrical & chemical energy
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|
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| 2 factors that make K+ more important the Na+ in determining the resting potential | the membrane is more permeable to K+, & the concentration gradient is higher for K+
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|
||||
| large, lipid-insoluble molecules can cross membranes | by interacting with transport proteins
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|
||||
| endocytosis | a mechanism for removing surface receptors
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|
||||
| osmosis | is diffusion of water from areas of higher water concentration to areas of lower water concentration
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|
||||
| swelling or skrinage of cells can be avoided if | the enviroment of the cells is isotonic to the cytoplasm
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|
||||
| the subatomic particle that is uncharged is | the neutron
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|
||||
| isotopes | forms of elements that have different atomic weights
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|
||||
| to be radioactive an element must | UNDERGO A DECAY PROCESS, EMITTING HIgh-ENERGY PARTICLES FROM ITS NUCLEUS
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|
||||
| chemical bonds | form when electrons in the outer orbital of stoms interact
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|
||||
| present in highest concentration in cytoplasm | K+
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|
||||
| valence is defined as | how many electrons the element can accept or donate
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|
||||
| a polar bond results when | the electron donor & acceptor are of unequal srength
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|
||||
| the diversity of biological compounds containing carbon is due to | its valence of either +4 or -4
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|
||||
| the strongest type of chemical bond is the | covalent bond
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|
||||
| growth, repair, & storage of energy involve this kind of process | anabolic processess
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|
||||
| when a donor atom donates electrons, | it is oxidized
🗑
|
||||
| hydrogen bonds | form between hydrogens bonded to nitrogen or oxygen
🗑
|
||||
| the energy barrier that reactants must cross to become products is called | the activation energy
🗑
|
||||
| when a system that contains reactants & products is at equilibrium | the concentrations of reactants & product remain constant
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|
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