Anatomy Chapter 9-10
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| Receptors | Detect changes and generate impulses
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| Sensory neurons | Transmit impulses from receptors to the central nervous system
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| Sensory tracts | White matter in the spinal cord or brain that transmits the impulses to a specific part of the brain
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| Sensory areas | feel and interpret the sensations
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| Projection | The sensation seems to come from the area where the receptors were stimulated
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| Phantom pain | The circumstance where the brain feels an amputated limb
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| Intensity | Some sensations are felt more distinctly and to a greater degree than are others
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| The brain "counts" the impulses and projects a more _________ sensation | intense
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| Contrast | The effect of a previous or simultaneous sensation on a current sensation
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| Adaptation | becoming unaware of a continuing stimulus
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| After-image | The sensation remains in the consciousness even after the stimulus has stopped
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| Free nerve endings | heat, cold, itch and pain
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| Free nerve endings also respond to any | intense stimulus
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| Encapsulated nerve endings | touch and pressure
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| Encapsulated nerve endings means that there is a | cellular structure around the nerve ending
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| Cutaneous sense provide | us with information about the external environment and also about the skin itself
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| Nueropathy | Damage to nerves that impairs sensation
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| Chemical itching is the result of an | irritant such as poison ivy sap or mosquito saliva stimulating the release of histamine in the skin
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| Mechanical itching may be caused by | a coarse fabric against the skin, or by the slight movement of something such as a flea
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| The sensory areas for the skin are in the | parietal lobes
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| Wetness is a | learned sensation
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| Free nerve endings are also found | in internal organs
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| Referred pain | Pain originating in an internal organ that is felt in a cutaneous area
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| Referred pain is actually a | creation of the brain
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| Stretch receptors | detect stretching of muscles and generate impulses, which enable the brain to create a mental picture to know where the muscles are and how they are positioned.
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| Conscious muscle sense is felt by the | parietal lobes
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| Unconscious muscle sense is used by the | cerebellum to coordinate voluntary movements
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| Chemoreceptors in the mouth detect | chemicals in solution in the mouth
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| Name the five general types of taste receptors | Sweet, sour, salty, bitter and savory
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| The impulses from taste buds are transmitted by the | facial and glossopharyngeal (7th and 9th cranial) nerves to the taste areas in the parietal-temporal cortex
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| Chemoreceptors in the nose | detect vaporized chemicals that have been sniffed into the upper nasal cavities
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| olfactory receptors generate impulses carried by the | olfactory nerves (1st cranial) through the ethmoid bone to the olfactory bulbs
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| Hunger and thirst are | visceral sensations
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| The receptors for hunger and thirst are both senses are | specialized cells in the hypothalamus
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| Conjunctiva | The thin membrane that lines the eyelids
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| Conjunctivitis | Inflammation of the conjunctiva
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| Tears are produced by the | lacrimal glands
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| Tears contain | lysozyme
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| Lysozyme is | an enzyme that inhibits the growth of most bacteria on the wet, warm surface of the eye
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| The orbit is formed by | the lacrimal, maxilla, zygomatic, frontal, sphenoid, and ethmoid bones
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| The six extrinsic muscles of the eye are attach to the | orbit and eyeball
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| The medial rectus muscle pulls the eyeball | medially
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| The two oblique muscles | rotate the eye
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| The cranial nerves that innervate the eyes muscles are | oculomotor, trochlear and abducens
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| Sclera | The thickest layer of the eyeball
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| The sclera is made of | fibrous connective tissue that is visible as the white of the eye
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| Cornea | the most anterior portion of the eye
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| The cornea has no | capillaries
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| The cornea is the first part of the eye that | refracts light rays
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| Choroid layer contains | blood vessels and a dark blue pigment that absorbs light within the eyeball and thereby prevents glare
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| Ciliary body | a circular muscle that surrounds the edge of the lens and is connected to the lens
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| The suspensory ligaments | connects the ciliary body to the lens
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| Iris | The colored part of the eye
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| Pupil | the central opening of the eye
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| Contraction of the radial fibers | dilates the pupil, which is a sympathetic response
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| The retina | lines the posterior two-thirds of the eyeball and contains the visual receptors, the rods and cones
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| Rods | detect only the presence of light
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| Cones | detect color
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| Cones are the most abundant in the | center of the retina
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| Macula lutea | An area directly behind the center of the lens, where many cones are
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| age-related macular degeneration (AMD) | loss of central vision
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| Ganglion neurons | Neurons that carry impulses from rods and cones
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| The posterior cavity of the eye contains | vitreous humor
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| Vitreous humor keeps the | retina in place
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| The anterior cavity is found | between the back of the cornea and the front of the lens
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| The anterior cavity contains | aqueous humor, the tissue fluid of the eyeball
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| Aqueous humor is | formed by the capillaries in the ciliary body, flows anteriorly through the pupil, and is reabsorbed by the canal of Schlemms
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| The ganglion neurons converge | at teh optic disc and become the optic nerve
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| The optic nerves from both eyes come together at the | optic chiasma
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| The visual areas are in the | occipital lobes of the cerebral cortex
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| The ear contains the receptors for | hearing and quilibrium
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| The outer ear consists of the | aurical and the ear canal
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| The aurical is made of | cartilage covered with skin
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| The ear canal is lined with skin that contain | ceruminous glands
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| The middle ear is an | air-filled cavity in the temporal bone
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| The eardrum is also called the | tympanic membrane
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| The eardrum is | stretched across the end of the ear canal and vibrates when sound waves strike it
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| Name the three auditory bones | malleus, incus and stapes
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| The eustachian tube | extends from the middle ear to the nasopharynx and permits air to enter or leave the middle cavity
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| The inner ear | A cavity called the bony labyrinth
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| Perilymph | The fluid found between bone and membrane
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| Endolymph | the fluid within the membranous structures of the inner ear
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| Organ of Corti | spiral organ
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| The auditory areas in the _____________ of the cerebral cortex receive impulses from both ears | temporal lobes
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| Utricle and saccule are | membranous sacs in an area called teh vestibule
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| The three semicircular canals are | fluid-filled membranous ovals oriented in three different planes
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| Aortic arch | receives blood pumped by the left ventricle of the heart, curves over the top of the hear
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| Carotid arteries | the branches of the aortic arch that take blood through the neck on the way to the brain
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| Pressoreceptors in the carotid sinuses and aortic sinus detect changes in | blood pressure
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| Chemoreceptors in the carotid bodies and the aortic body detect changes in the | oxygen and carbon dioxide content and the pH of blood
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| Endocrine glands are | ductless
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| Amines | Simple hormones that are structural variations of the amino acid tyrosine
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| Proteins | Hormones that are chains of from 50 to 200 amino acids
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| Hormones | Powerful chemicals that have targets within the body
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| Steroids | Cholesterol is the precursor for the steroid hormones, which include a variety of hormones
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| ADH | Anti-diuretic hormone
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| Hormones often induce | a negative feedback mechanism
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| Posterior pituitary gland | anti-diuretic hormone, and oxytocin
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| ADH and oxytocin are produced by the __________ and stored in the ____________________ | hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland
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| ADH | increases the reabsorption of water by kidney tubules, which decreases the amount of fluid formed
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| Dehydration stimulates the secretion of | ADH
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| ADH is also called | vasopressin
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| Oxytocin | stimulates contraction of the uterus at the end of pregnancy, stimulates mammary glands
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| Oxytocin is one of the few | positive feedback mechanisms within the body
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| AHD and oxytocin are both with similar structure, having _____ amino acids each | peptide hormones, nine
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| Anterior pituitary gland secretes | growth hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, prolactin, follicle-stimulating hormone, lutenizing hormone
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| FSH | Follicle Stimulating Hormone
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| FSH stimulates (women) | production of eggs in the ovary
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| TSH | Thyroid-stimulating hormone
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| TSH stimulates | the thyroid, causes it to secrete more thyroxine and T3
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| ACTH | Adrenocorticotropic hormone
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| ACTH increases | the secretion of cortisol from the adrenal gland
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| PRL | Prolactin
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| PRL targets | the mammary glands
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| GH | Growth hormone
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| GH increases | protein synthesis, rate of mitosis, increases the use of fats
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| LH | Luteinizing hormone
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| LH affects (women) | causes ovulation
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| LH affects (men) | increases secretion of testosterone by testes
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| FSH stimulates (men) | sperm production in testes
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| Thyroid gland secretes | Thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) and calcitonin
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| T3 and T4 affect | metabolism/energy production
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| Calcitonin | decreases amount of calcium that goes from bones to blood
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| PTH | parathyroid hormone
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| PTH affects | causes more calcium from bone to blood, increases amount of calcium absorbed in small intestine
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| Hypoclcemia | Low blood calcium level
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| PTH is stimulated by | hypocalcemia
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| Adrenal glands are located | one on top of each kidney
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| Adrenal medulla | secretes epinephyrine and norepinephrine
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| Parts of adrenal gland | medulla and cortex
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| vasoconstriction | blood vessels get smaller
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| Norepinephrine causes | vasoconstriction in skin and skeletal muscles
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| Epinephrine causes | increase in heart rate and force of hearbeat, causes vasodilation in skeletal muscles, dilates the bronchioles, decreases peristalsis, and increases energy production
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| Adrenal cortex stimulated by | lack of sodium or lack of blood pressure
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| Aldosterone | increases the reabsorption of sodium and the excretion of potassium by the kidney tubules
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| Cortisol | decreases inflammation
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| Cortisol is released during | psychosocial stress
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| Pancreas is located | posterior to the stomach
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| Endocrine gland secretes | directly into bloodstream
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| Exocrine gland secretes | into a duct
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| Pancreas is both an _______ and _______ gland | endocrine and exocrine
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| Glucagon | secreted by pancreas, travels through blood to liver, which releases and breaks down glucose to glycogen
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| Glycogen | Stored glucose
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| Two places we store glycogen | muscles and liver
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| Beta cells | produce insulin
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| Alpha cells | produce glucagon
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| Somatostatin | decreases secretion of insulin/glucagon
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| delta cells secrete | somatostatin
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| Ovaries secrete | steroids estrogen and progesterone and the protein inhibin
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| Estrogen | promotes the maturation of the ovum in the ovarian follicle and stimultes the growth of blood vessels in the endometrium
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| Estrogen is stimulated by | FSH
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| Progesterone | promtoes the storage of lycogen and the further growth of blood vessels in the endometrium, which thus become a potential placenta. It also influences the secretory cells of the mammary glands
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| Progesterone is stimulated by | LH
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| Inhibin (women) | decreases the secretion of FSH by the anterior pituitary gland and GnRH by the hypothalamus
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| Testosterone | Steroid hormone secreted by the interstitial cells of teh testes
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| Testosterone is stimulated by | LH
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| Inhibin (men) | decreases the secretion of FSH
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| Inhibin is stimulated by | increased testosterone
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| Melatonin is produced by | pineal gland
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| PGs | Prostaglandins
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| PGs are involved in | inflammation, pain mechanisms, blood clotting, vasoconstriction and vasodilation, contraction of the uterus, reproduction, secretion of digestive glands and nutrient metabolism.
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| A hormone must first bond to a ______ | receptor
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| Liver cells have receptors for | insulin, glucagon, grwoth hormone, and epinephrine
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| Bone cells have receptors for | grwoth horomone, PTH, and calcitonin
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| Cells of the ovaries and testes have receptors for | FSH and LH
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| Protein hormones usually bond to receptors of | the cell membrane
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| Adenyl cyclase snythesizes a substance called | cyclic adenosine monophosphate
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| Steroid hormones are soluble in the | lipids of the cell membrane and diffuse easily into a target cell
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