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Anatomy Chapter 9-10
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Receptors | Detect changes and generate impulses |
| Sensory neurons | Transmit impulses from receptors to the central nervous system |
| Sensory tracts | White matter in the spinal cord or brain that transmits the impulses to a specific part of the brain |
| Sensory areas | feel and interpret the sensations |
| Projection | The sensation seems to come from the area where the receptors were stimulated |
| Phantom pain | The circumstance where the brain feels an amputated limb |
| Intensity | Some sensations are felt more distinctly and to a greater degree than are others |
| The brain "counts" the impulses and projects a more _________ sensation | intense |
| Contrast | The effect of a previous or simultaneous sensation on a current sensation |
| Adaptation | becoming unaware of a continuing stimulus |
| After-image | The sensation remains in the consciousness even after the stimulus has stopped |
| Free nerve endings | heat, cold, itch and pain |
| Free nerve endings also respond to any | intense stimulus |
| Encapsulated nerve endings | touch and pressure |
| Encapsulated nerve endings means that there is a | cellular structure around the nerve ending |
| Cutaneous sense provide | us with information about the external environment and also about the skin itself |
| Nueropathy | Damage to nerves that impairs sensation |
| Chemical itching is the result of an | irritant such as poison ivy sap or mosquito saliva stimulating the release of histamine in the skin |
| Mechanical itching may be caused by | a coarse fabric against the skin, or by the slight movement of something such as a flea |
| The sensory areas for the skin are in the | parietal lobes |
| Wetness is a | learned sensation |
| Free nerve endings are also found | in internal organs |
| Referred pain | Pain originating in an internal organ that is felt in a cutaneous area |
| Referred pain is actually a | creation of the brain |
| Stretch receptors | detect stretching of muscles and generate impulses, which enable the brain to create a mental picture to know where the muscles are and how they are positioned. |
| Conscious muscle sense is felt by the | parietal lobes |
| Unconscious muscle sense is used by the | cerebellum to coordinate voluntary movements |
| Chemoreceptors in the mouth detect | chemicals in solution in the mouth |
| Name the five general types of taste receptors | Sweet, sour, salty, bitter and savory |
| The impulses from taste buds are transmitted by the | facial and glossopharyngeal (7th and 9th cranial) nerves to the taste areas in the parietal-temporal cortex |
| Chemoreceptors in the nose | detect vaporized chemicals that have been sniffed into the upper nasal cavities |
| olfactory receptors generate impulses carried by the | olfactory nerves (1st cranial) through the ethmoid bone to the olfactory bulbs |
| Hunger and thirst are | visceral sensations |
| The receptors for hunger and thirst are both senses are | specialized cells in the hypothalamus |
| Conjunctiva | The thin membrane that lines the eyelids |
| Conjunctivitis | Inflammation of the conjunctiva |
| Tears are produced by the | lacrimal glands |
| Tears contain | lysozyme |
| Lysozyme is | an enzyme that inhibits the growth of most bacteria on the wet, warm surface of the eye |
| The orbit is formed by | the lacrimal, maxilla, zygomatic, frontal, sphenoid, and ethmoid bones |
| The six extrinsic muscles of the eye are attach to the | orbit and eyeball |
| The medial rectus muscle pulls the eyeball | medially |
| The two oblique muscles | rotate the eye |
| The cranial nerves that innervate the eyes muscles are | oculomotor, trochlear and abducens |
| Sclera | The thickest layer of the eyeball |
| The sclera is made of | fibrous connective tissue that is visible as the white of the eye |
| Cornea | the most anterior portion of the eye |
| The cornea has no | capillaries |
| The cornea is the first part of the eye that | refracts light rays |
| Choroid layer contains | blood vessels and a dark blue pigment that absorbs light within the eyeball and thereby prevents glare |
| Ciliary body | a circular muscle that surrounds the edge of the lens and is connected to the lens |
| The suspensory ligaments | connects the ciliary body to the lens |
| Iris | The colored part of the eye |
| Pupil | the central opening of the eye |
| Contraction of the radial fibers | dilates the pupil, which is a sympathetic response |
| The retina | lines the posterior two-thirds of the eyeball and contains the visual receptors, the rods and cones |
| Rods | detect only the presence of light |
| Cones | detect color |
| Cones are the most abundant in the | center of the retina |
| Macula lutea | An area directly behind the center of the lens, where many cones are |
| age-related macular degeneration (AMD) | loss of central vision |
| Ganglion neurons | Neurons that carry impulses from rods and cones |
| The posterior cavity of the eye contains | vitreous humor |
| Vitreous humor keeps the | retina in place |
| The anterior cavity is found | between the back of the cornea and the front of the lens |
| The anterior cavity contains | aqueous humor, the tissue fluid of the eyeball |
| Aqueous humor is | formed by the capillaries in the ciliary body, flows anteriorly through the pupil, and is reabsorbed by the canal of Schlemms |
| The ganglion neurons converge | at teh optic disc and become the optic nerve |
| The optic nerves from both eyes come together at the | optic chiasma |
| The visual areas are in the | occipital lobes of the cerebral cortex |
| The ear contains the receptors for | hearing and quilibrium |
| The outer ear consists of the | aurical and the ear canal |
| The aurical is made of | cartilage covered with skin |
| The ear canal is lined with skin that contain | ceruminous glands |
| The middle ear is an | air-filled cavity in the temporal bone |
| The eardrum is also called the | tympanic membrane |
| The eardrum is | stretched across the end of the ear canal and vibrates when sound waves strike it |
| Name the three auditory bones | malleus, incus and stapes |
| The eustachian tube | extends from the middle ear to the nasopharynx and permits air to enter or leave the middle cavity |
| The inner ear | A cavity called the bony labyrinth |
| Perilymph | The fluid found between bone and membrane |
| Endolymph | the fluid within the membranous structures of the inner ear |
| Organ of Corti | spiral organ |
| The auditory areas in the _____________ of the cerebral cortex receive impulses from both ears | temporal lobes |
| Utricle and saccule are | membranous sacs in an area called teh vestibule |
| The three semicircular canals are | fluid-filled membranous ovals oriented in three different planes |
| Aortic arch | receives blood pumped by the left ventricle of the heart, curves over the top of the hear |
| Carotid arteries | the branches of the aortic arch that take blood through the neck on the way to the brain |
| Pressoreceptors in the carotid sinuses and aortic sinus detect changes in | blood pressure |
| Chemoreceptors in the carotid bodies and the aortic body detect changes in the | oxygen and carbon dioxide content and the pH of blood |
| Endocrine glands are | ductless |
| Amines | Simple hormones that are structural variations of the amino acid tyrosine |
| Proteins | Hormones that are chains of from 50 to 200 amino acids |
| Hormones | Powerful chemicals that have targets within the body |
| Steroids | Cholesterol is the precursor for the steroid hormones, which include a variety of hormones |
| ADH | Anti-diuretic hormone |
| Hormones often induce | a negative feedback mechanism |
| Posterior pituitary gland | anti-diuretic hormone, and oxytocin |
| ADH and oxytocin are produced by the __________ and stored in the ____________________ | hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland |
| ADH | increases the reabsorption of water by kidney tubules, which decreases the amount of fluid formed |
| Dehydration stimulates the secretion of | ADH |
| ADH is also called | vasopressin |
| Oxytocin | stimulates contraction of the uterus at the end of pregnancy, stimulates mammary glands |
| Oxytocin is one of the few | positive feedback mechanisms within the body |
| AHD and oxytocin are both with similar structure, having _____ amino acids each | peptide hormones, nine |
| Anterior pituitary gland secretes | growth hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, prolactin, follicle-stimulating hormone, lutenizing hormone |
| FSH | Follicle Stimulating Hormone |
| FSH stimulates (women) | production of eggs in the ovary |
| TSH | Thyroid-stimulating hormone |
| TSH stimulates | the thyroid, causes it to secrete more thyroxine and T3 |
| ACTH | Adrenocorticotropic hormone |
| ACTH increases | the secretion of cortisol from the adrenal gland |
| PRL | Prolactin |
| PRL targets | the mammary glands |
| GH | Growth hormone |
| GH increases | protein synthesis, rate of mitosis, increases the use of fats |
| LH | Luteinizing hormone |
| LH affects (women) | causes ovulation |
| LH affects (men) | increases secretion of testosterone by testes |
| FSH stimulates (men) | sperm production in testes |
| Thyroid gland secretes | Thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) and calcitonin |
| T3 and T4 affect | metabolism/energy production |
| Calcitonin | decreases amount of calcium that goes from bones to blood |
| PTH | parathyroid hormone |
| PTH affects | causes more calcium from bone to blood, increases amount of calcium absorbed in small intestine |
| Hypoclcemia | Low blood calcium level |
| PTH is stimulated by | hypocalcemia |
| Adrenal glands are located | one on top of each kidney |
| Adrenal medulla | secretes epinephyrine and norepinephrine |
| Parts of adrenal gland | medulla and cortex |
| vasoconstriction | blood vessels get smaller |
| Norepinephrine causes | vasoconstriction in skin and skeletal muscles |
| Epinephrine causes | increase in heart rate and force of hearbeat, causes vasodilation in skeletal muscles, dilates the bronchioles, decreases peristalsis, and increases energy production |
| Adrenal cortex stimulated by | lack of sodium or lack of blood pressure |
| Aldosterone | increases the reabsorption of sodium and the excretion of potassium by the kidney tubules |
| Cortisol | decreases inflammation |
| Cortisol is released during | psychosocial stress |
| Pancreas is located | posterior to the stomach |
| Endocrine gland secretes | directly into bloodstream |
| Exocrine gland secretes | into a duct |
| Pancreas is both an _______ and _______ gland | endocrine and exocrine |
| Glucagon | secreted by pancreas, travels through blood to liver, which releases and breaks down glucose to glycogen |
| Glycogen | Stored glucose |
| Two places we store glycogen | muscles and liver |
| Beta cells | produce insulin |
| Alpha cells | produce glucagon |
| Somatostatin | decreases secretion of insulin/glucagon |
| delta cells secrete | somatostatin |
| Ovaries secrete | steroids estrogen and progesterone and the protein inhibin |
| Estrogen | promotes the maturation of the ovum in the ovarian follicle and stimultes the growth of blood vessels in the endometrium |
| Estrogen is stimulated by | FSH |
| Progesterone | promtoes the storage of lycogen and the further growth of blood vessels in the endometrium, which thus become a potential placenta. It also influences the secretory cells of the mammary glands |
| Progesterone is stimulated by | LH |
| Inhibin (women) | decreases the secretion of FSH by the anterior pituitary gland and GnRH by the hypothalamus |
| Testosterone | Steroid hormone secreted by the interstitial cells of teh testes |
| Testosterone is stimulated by | LH |
| Inhibin (men) | decreases the secretion of FSH |
| Inhibin is stimulated by | increased testosterone |
| Melatonin is produced by | pineal gland |
| PGs | Prostaglandins |
| PGs are involved in | inflammation, pain mechanisms, blood clotting, vasoconstriction and vasodilation, contraction of the uterus, reproduction, secretion of digestive glands and nutrient metabolism. |
| A hormone must first bond to a ______ | receptor |
| Liver cells have receptors for | insulin, glucagon, grwoth hormone, and epinephrine |
| Bone cells have receptors for | grwoth horomone, PTH, and calcitonin |
| Cells of the ovaries and testes have receptors for | FSH and LH |
| Protein hormones usually bond to receptors of | the cell membrane |
| Adenyl cyclase snythesizes a substance called | cyclic adenosine monophosphate |
| Steroid hormones are soluble in the | lipids of the cell membrane and diffuse easily into a target cell |
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akikoandpoog
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