Handout 2 Review Chem and Cell Phys
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| Bond | Atoms are held together by bonds
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| Covalent bond | Bonds created by tow atoms that share one or more pairs of electrons
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| Ionic bond | A bond btwn ions attracted to each other by opposite charge
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| Hydrogen bond | weak attractive forces btwn hydrogens and other atoms, esp. O and N
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| Van der Waals forces | Weak attractive force that occurs btwn two polar molecules or a polar molecule and an ion
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| Ion | An atom with a net positive or negative charge due to gain or loss of one or more electrons
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| Cation | + charged ion
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| Anion | - charged ion
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| Polarity of a cell | Cells restrict certain membrane proteins to particular regions, thereby creating cell with different funxs in different areas
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| Polar molecule | Molecules that develop regions of partial positive and negative charge when one or more atoms in the molecule have a strong attraction for ELECTRONs
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| Nonpolar molecule | A molecule whose electrons are distributed so evenly that there are no regions of partial positive or negative charge
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| Hydrophilic | Water LOVING
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| Hydrophobic | Water HATING
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| pH | The concentration of H+ ions in a soln and it measures acidity in that soln; measures influence of the forces and shape
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| Changes in acidity | Can alter Hydrogen bonding and van der Waals forces altering shape causing lessened efficiency of the cell; maintaining shape in important for normal funx and activity levels8888888888
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| Buffer | resists change in pH
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| Optimal pH | 7-7.6; anything out of this range leads towards death
0 = Acid (Strong Acid)
14 = Base (Weak Acid)
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| Biomolecules (4) | Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleotides
-All used as E and used structurally
-Most exist as polymers; long units built from a basic building block
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| Carbohydrates | building blocks = monosaccharides (glucose)
disaccharides (glucose + fructose = sucrose)
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| How do plants store glucose? | As starch & Cellulose (long polymer)
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| How do animals store glucose? | As glycogen (long polymer)
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| Lipids | Made from fatty acids + glycerol; tri, di, & monoglycerides
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| What is the storage form of lipids in animals? | Triglyceride
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| Proteins | Do the most work in a cell; BB's are Amino Acids; 20+ Amino Acids are a protein; peptide or polypeptide 2-20 amino acids.
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| Nucleotides | signaling molecules assembled from RNA & DNA; compd's-polymers of nucleotide
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| Actions of soluble proteins | ENZYMES; MEMBRANE TRANSPORTERS activley pushing things in and out of cell; SIGNAL MOLECULES; RECEPTORS; BINDING PROTEINS binding selves to environment; REGULATORY PROTEINS regulating internal processes; Immune activities as IMMUNOGLOBULINS
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| Protein binding | Exhibits specificity, affinity, competition and saturation
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| Ligund | any molecule tht binds to another molecule
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| Substrate | A ligund that binds to an enzyme or membranne transporter
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| Specificity | Some mols bind to it but others do not
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| Affinity | Tightens/strengthens binding; diff affinities of binding; Hemoglobin has a higher affinity for CO2 that O2
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| Competition | Two substrated that compete for a binding site, reducung the effectiveness of both
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| Saturation | Limited number of transporters, receptors and when all are used it creates limited connectivity
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| Agonists | Diff ligunds that bind to the same protein and ACTIVATE it
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| Antagonists | Ligunds that bind to a protein and BLOCK its function
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| Factors that affect protein function | Isoforms, modulators
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| Isoforms | Variations made by changing an amino acid in a protein, changing its function with a MEASURABLE EFFECT Ex. Embryonic and Adult Hemoglobin-both funx by binding to O but diff affinityf; Embryonic is higher to get O2 from Mom
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| Modulators | Change activity, shape, adn behavior of a protein when temp or pH changes too much
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| Competitive inhibitor | Blocks activity; like an irreversible inhibitor
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| Irreversible inhibitor | toxins, botox that irreversibly binds to block activity
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| Allosteric modulator | A molecule that binds to a receptor NOT at an active site has modualted activity Ex. GABA may inhibit response at target neuron so increase in activity. (?)
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| Covalent modulator | Can target specific proteins quickly by attaching a protein to a phosphate (PHOSPHORALATION) and detatch a phospate (DEPHOSPHORALATION)
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| Phosphoralation | ADD a phosphate; turn ON; ACTIVATES a protein
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| Dephosphoralation | DETATCH a phosphate; Turn OFF; Deactivate a protein
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| E in biological systems | -E is used to peroform work; can be either kinetic or potential; can be converted from one form to another; thermodynamics
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| Potential Energy | Greatest potential E is at top of a roller coaster
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| Kinetic Energy | Released on the way down a roller coaster
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| Exergonic reactions | Energy RELEASED during CHEMICAL reactions; Products at LOWER E than the substrates
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| Endergonic reactions | Energy is UTILIZED during CHEMICAL reactions; Product has HIGHER E level than the subtrates
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| Exergonic and Endergonic reactions can be coupled | Combining two amino acids to make a peptide; Products have higher E by coupling w/an exergonic rxn (ATP)
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| Most reactions need an Activation Energy | Ex. Paper is held together by covalent bonds, if burned the ashes hold lower E. Released E as heat doesn't happen onits own b/c its stable and needs Activation E (reaching 450 degrees w/the help of a match) otherwise it will stay in its potential state.
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| Enzymes | A+B+enzyme = C+D+enzyme; enzymes lower the Activation E of reactions to allow a rxn to happen that is aventatious for us; Reaction rates are variable
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| Metabolism | catabolism, anabolism
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| Catabolism | rxns PRODUCE E via breakdown of large biomolecules into their own building blocks
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| Anabolism | rxns USE E to produce large biomolecules; combining large molecules to build larger ones
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| How is metabolism measured? | Can measure heat released or produced and indirectly the amt of O2 being consumed in kCAls= E content in food= heat released by burning
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| Control of Metabolism | Controlling enzyme concentrations, ,modulation of enzymatic activity, reversible rxns, isolation of enzymes, changing ratio of ATP:ADP
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| Controlling enzyme concentrations | turning on/off w/ gene activity; most enzymatic rxns have one irriversible direction; some are reversible
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| Reversible rxns using ONE enzyme for both directions | RARE
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| Reversible rxn requiring TWO enzymes | ONLY LIVER can reverse a rxn
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| Irreversible rxn lacks the enzyme for the reverse rxn | ALL CELLS i body can do this;
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| Isolation of enzyme | seperate and control rxns Ex. lysosome breaks down stuff
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| Shift ratio of ATP:ADP | Less E to slow down metabolism or increase E to increase metabolism
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| ATP production from glucose | glycolosis, citric acid cycle, electron transpot chain
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| Glycolosis | Breaking down glucose from ATP; IN CYTOPLASM
Breaks down glucose to 2-3 Carbon pyruvate to produce 2 ATP; glycolosis is anerobic (doesn't require O2)
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| Nervous sytem and Brain | ONLY USE GLUCOSE for ATP
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| ALL other systems | Can breakdown biomolecules for ATP
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| Citriic acid cycle | in MITOCHONDRIA so requires O2 resulting in breaking down in the mitochondria to 6 carbons + O2 + water to produce CO2 resulting in 34-36 ATP gained
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| Electron transport chain | in MITOCHONDRIA so requires O2 (same result in ATP as citric acid cycle -only when O2 is present)
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| If no glucose... | take form storage; breakdown glycogen to glucose 6 phosphate then glycolysis, citric acid cycle, electron transport chain.
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| Still no glucose?...make new glucose | in The LIVER after the glucose supply is all used up; generally, free amino acids are catalyzed to produce ATP; deamination then glycolosis or citric acid cycle
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| deamination | ?
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| Lipids and ATP | triglycerides catalyzed (breakdown)via process called lipolysis
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| lypolysis | glycerol enters glycolysis then fatty acids shipped to mitochondria to citric acid cycle and elctron transport chain so need ATP; so need O2
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| How do we get fat from fat free food? | Glycerol can be made from glucose through glycolysis then converted to fatty acids then into triglycerides (fat) and then stored as fat
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| Cell physiology | Cytoplasm and Nucleus
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| Cytoplasm | Cytosol inclusions and organelles
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| Cytosol | fluid, gel-like substance
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| Inclusions (non-membraneous organelles) | cytoskeleton and ribosomes
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| Cytoskeleton | microtubules, intermediate filaments, microfilaments and motor proteins; in cytoskeleton are proteins that support framework of cell, organizing within the cell and maintaing shape and mvmnt
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| Ribosomes | make proteins by reading RNA from DNA
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| Organelles (membrane bound) | mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi complex, lysosomes, peroxisomes
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| Mitochondria | ATP production
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| Endoplasmic Reticulum | Modify proteins and make specific membranes and lipis, produce hormones
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| Golgi Complex | Pkging and sorting proteins to specific locations
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| Lysosomes | Recycling Center;Breaking down old materials
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| Peroxisomes | Free radicals minimizing damage to nucleus
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| Nuclear envelope | hold nucleolus
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| Nucleolus | building blocks of ribosomes; are produced here
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| Making of a protein | DNA, Transcription, Translation, Sorting, folding modification
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| DNA (in making a protein) | parts being controlled by transcription factors
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| Transcription | unprocessed mRNA, processed mRNA; copy of DNA (dbl strand) to RNA (single strand)so can get out of nucleus
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| Translation | in cytoplasm by ribosome
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| Sorting, folding, modification | in cytoplasm if staying in cytoplasm; in endoplasmic reticulum or goli apparatus if beign secreted
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| Cell binding | Cell-cell junctions, cell matrix junctions; to neighbors &/or the environment to form tissues
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| Cell-cell junctions | Gap junctions, tight junctions, anchoring junctions
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| gap junctions | form a pore to allow communication btwn neighboring cells (ATP, Ca, Electrical signals in CM cells)
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| tight junctions | form a waterproof barrier preventing material from sliding btwn cells Ex. in STOMACH
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| anchoring junctions | strongly attaching cells to neighbors; if not attached to the environment they begin to divide; anchoring inhibits cell division which causes cancer
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| Cell-Matrix junctions | focal adhesions, hemidesmosomes
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| Tissues | Embryonically/functionally related cells + extracellualr matrix and 4 tissue types
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| 4 Tissue types | Epithelial tissue, CT, Muscle tissue and Nervous tissue (be able to give an example and what its used for)
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| Epithelial Tissue | Lines organs; stomach lining and skin
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| Connective tissue | Connects, supports, protects; cartilage, blood, tendons
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| Nervous tissue | informs us of environmental change in CNS; signals muscles
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| Muscular tissue | Movement and support; skeletal, smooth and cardiac
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