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Human Physiology H2
Handout 2 Review Chem and Cell Phys
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Bond | Atoms are held together by bonds |
| Covalent bond | Bonds created by tow atoms that share one or more pairs of electrons |
| Ionic bond | A bond btwn ions attracted to each other by opposite charge |
| Hydrogen bond | weak attractive forces btwn hydrogens and other atoms, esp. O and N |
| Van der Waals forces | Weak attractive force that occurs btwn two polar molecules or a polar molecule and an ion |
| Ion | An atom with a net positive or negative charge due to gain or loss of one or more electrons |
| Cation | + charged ion |
| Anion | - charged ion |
| Polarity of a cell | Cells restrict certain membrane proteins to particular regions, thereby creating cell with different funxs in different areas |
| Polar molecule | Molecules that develop regions of partial positive and negative charge when one or more atoms in the molecule have a strong attraction for ELECTRONs |
| Nonpolar molecule | A molecule whose electrons are distributed so evenly that there are no regions of partial positive or negative charge |
| Hydrophilic | Water LOVING |
| Hydrophobic | Water HATING |
| pH | The concentration of H+ ions in a soln and it measures acidity in that soln; measures influence of the forces and shape |
| Changes in acidity | Can alter Hydrogen bonding and van der Waals forces altering shape causing lessened efficiency of the cell; maintaining shape in important for normal funx and activity levels8888888888 |
| Buffer | resists change in pH |
| Optimal pH | 7-7.6; anything out of this range leads towards death 0 = Acid (Strong Acid) 14 = Base (Weak Acid) |
| Biomolecules (4) | Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Nucleotides -All used as E and used structurally -Most exist as polymers; long units built from a basic building block |
| Carbohydrates | building blocks = monosaccharides (glucose) disaccharides (glucose + fructose = sucrose) |
| How do plants store glucose? | As starch & Cellulose (long polymer) |
| How do animals store glucose? | As glycogen (long polymer) |
| Lipids | Made from fatty acids + glycerol; tri, di, & monoglycerides |
| What is the storage form of lipids in animals? | Triglyceride |
| Proteins | Do the most work in a cell; BB's are Amino Acids; 20+ Amino Acids are a protein; peptide or polypeptide 2-20 amino acids. |
| Nucleotides | signaling molecules assembled from RNA & DNA; compd's-polymers of nucleotide |
| Actions of soluble proteins | ENZYMES; MEMBRANE TRANSPORTERS activley pushing things in and out of cell; SIGNAL MOLECULES; RECEPTORS; BINDING PROTEINS binding selves to environment; REGULATORY PROTEINS regulating internal processes; Immune activities as IMMUNOGLOBULINS |
| Protein binding | Exhibits specificity, affinity, competition and saturation |
| Ligund | any molecule tht binds to another molecule |
| Substrate | A ligund that binds to an enzyme or membranne transporter |
| Specificity | Some mols bind to it but others do not |
| Affinity | Tightens/strengthens binding; diff affinities of binding; Hemoglobin has a higher affinity for CO2 that O2 |
| Competition | Two substrated that compete for a binding site, reducung the effectiveness of both |
| Saturation | Limited number of transporters, receptors and when all are used it creates limited connectivity |
| Agonists | Diff ligunds that bind to the same protein and ACTIVATE it |
| Antagonists | Ligunds that bind to a protein and BLOCK its function |
| Factors that affect protein function | Isoforms, modulators |
| Isoforms | Variations made by changing an amino acid in a protein, changing its function with a MEASURABLE EFFECT Ex. Embryonic and Adult Hemoglobin-both funx by binding to O but diff affinityf; Embryonic is higher to get O2 from Mom |
| Modulators | Change activity, shape, adn behavior of a protein when temp or pH changes too much |
| Competitive inhibitor | Blocks activity; like an irreversible inhibitor |
| Irreversible inhibitor | toxins, botox that irreversibly binds to block activity |
| Allosteric modulator | A molecule that binds to a receptor NOT at an active site has modualted activity Ex. GABA may inhibit response at target neuron so increase in activity. (?) |
| Covalent modulator | Can target specific proteins quickly by attaching a protein to a phosphate (PHOSPHORALATION) and detatch a phospate (DEPHOSPHORALATION) |
| Phosphoralation | ADD a phosphate; turn ON; ACTIVATES a protein |
| Dephosphoralation | DETATCH a phosphate; Turn OFF; Deactivate a protein |
| E in biological systems | -E is used to peroform work; can be either kinetic or potential; can be converted from one form to another; thermodynamics |
| Potential Energy | Greatest potential E is at top of a roller coaster |
| Kinetic Energy | Released on the way down a roller coaster |
| Exergonic reactions | Energy RELEASED during CHEMICAL reactions; Products at LOWER E than the substrates |
| Endergonic reactions | Energy is UTILIZED during CHEMICAL reactions; Product has HIGHER E level than the subtrates |
| Exergonic and Endergonic reactions can be coupled | Combining two amino acids to make a peptide; Products have higher E by coupling w/an exergonic rxn (ATP) |
| Most reactions need an Activation Energy | Ex. Paper is held together by covalent bonds, if burned the ashes hold lower E. Released E as heat doesn't happen onits own b/c its stable and needs Activation E (reaching 450 degrees w/the help of a match) otherwise it will stay in its potential state. |
| Enzymes | A+B+enzyme = C+D+enzyme; enzymes lower the Activation E of reactions to allow a rxn to happen that is aventatious for us; Reaction rates are variable |
| Metabolism | catabolism, anabolism |
| Catabolism | rxns PRODUCE E via breakdown of large biomolecules into their own building blocks |
| Anabolism | rxns USE E to produce large biomolecules; combining large molecules to build larger ones |
| How is metabolism measured? | Can measure heat released or produced and indirectly the amt of O2 being consumed in kCAls= E content in food= heat released by burning |
| Control of Metabolism | Controlling enzyme concentrations, ,modulation of enzymatic activity, reversible rxns, isolation of enzymes, changing ratio of ATP:ADP |
| Controlling enzyme concentrations | turning on/off w/ gene activity; most enzymatic rxns have one irriversible direction; some are reversible |
| Reversible rxns using ONE enzyme for both directions | RARE |
| Reversible rxn requiring TWO enzymes | ONLY LIVER can reverse a rxn |
| Irreversible rxn lacks the enzyme for the reverse rxn | ALL CELLS i body can do this; |
| Isolation of enzyme | seperate and control rxns Ex. lysosome breaks down stuff |
| Shift ratio of ATP:ADP | Less E to slow down metabolism or increase E to increase metabolism |
| ATP production from glucose | glycolosis, citric acid cycle, electron transpot chain |
| Glycolosis | Breaking down glucose from ATP; IN CYTOPLASM Breaks down glucose to 2-3 Carbon pyruvate to produce 2 ATP; glycolosis is anerobic (doesn't require O2) |
| Nervous sytem and Brain | ONLY USE GLUCOSE for ATP |
| ALL other systems | Can breakdown biomolecules for ATP |
| Citriic acid cycle | in MITOCHONDRIA so requires O2 resulting in breaking down in the mitochondria to 6 carbons + O2 + water to produce CO2 resulting in 34-36 ATP gained |
| Electron transport chain | in MITOCHONDRIA so requires O2 (same result in ATP as citric acid cycle -only when O2 is present) |
| If no glucose... | take form storage; breakdown glycogen to glucose 6 phosphate then glycolysis, citric acid cycle, electron transport chain. |
| Still no glucose?...make new glucose | in The LIVER after the glucose supply is all used up; generally, free amino acids are catalyzed to produce ATP; deamination then glycolosis or citric acid cycle |
| deamination | ? |
| Lipids and ATP | triglycerides catalyzed (breakdown)via process called lipolysis |
| lypolysis | glycerol enters glycolysis then fatty acids shipped to mitochondria to citric acid cycle and elctron transport chain so need ATP; so need O2 |
| How do we get fat from fat free food? | Glycerol can be made from glucose through glycolysis then converted to fatty acids then into triglycerides (fat) and then stored as fat |
| Cell physiology | Cytoplasm and Nucleus |
| Cytoplasm | Cytosol inclusions and organelles |
| Cytosol | fluid, gel-like substance |
| Inclusions (non-membraneous organelles) | cytoskeleton and ribosomes |
| Cytoskeleton | microtubules, intermediate filaments, microfilaments and motor proteins; in cytoskeleton are proteins that support framework of cell, organizing within the cell and maintaing shape and mvmnt |
| Ribosomes | make proteins by reading RNA from DNA |
| Organelles (membrane bound) | mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi complex, lysosomes, peroxisomes |
| Mitochondria | ATP production |
| Endoplasmic Reticulum | Modify proteins and make specific membranes and lipis, produce hormones |
| Golgi Complex | Pkging and sorting proteins to specific locations |
| Lysosomes | Recycling Center;Breaking down old materials |
| Peroxisomes | Free radicals minimizing damage to nucleus |
| Nuclear envelope | hold nucleolus |
| Nucleolus | building blocks of ribosomes; are produced here |
| Making of a protein | DNA, Transcription, Translation, Sorting, folding modification |
| DNA (in making a protein) | parts being controlled by transcription factors |
| Transcription | unprocessed mRNA, processed mRNA; copy of DNA (dbl strand) to RNA (single strand)so can get out of nucleus |
| Translation | in cytoplasm by ribosome |
| Sorting, folding, modification | in cytoplasm if staying in cytoplasm; in endoplasmic reticulum or goli apparatus if beign secreted |
| Cell binding | Cell-cell junctions, cell matrix junctions; to neighbors &/or the environment to form tissues |
| Cell-cell junctions | Gap junctions, tight junctions, anchoring junctions |
| gap junctions | form a pore to allow communication btwn neighboring cells (ATP, Ca, Electrical signals in CM cells) |
| tight junctions | form a waterproof barrier preventing material from sliding btwn cells Ex. in STOMACH |
| anchoring junctions | strongly attaching cells to neighbors; if not attached to the environment they begin to divide; anchoring inhibits cell division which causes cancer |
| Cell-Matrix junctions | focal adhesions, hemidesmosomes |
| Tissues | Embryonically/functionally related cells + extracellualr matrix and 4 tissue types |
| 4 Tissue types | Epithelial tissue, CT, Muscle tissue and Nervous tissue (be able to give an example and what its used for) |
| Epithelial Tissue | Lines organs; stomach lining and skin |
| Connective tissue | Connects, supports, protects; cartilage, blood, tendons |
| Nervous tissue | informs us of environmental change in CNS; signals muscles |
| Muscular tissue | Movement and support; skeletal, smooth and cardiac |
Created by:
Lkellyfly
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