Hesi A2 A&P
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| Tissue Types | Connective, Epithelial, Muscle, and Nervous.
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| Muscle Tissues | Skeletal, Smooth, and Cardiac
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| Connective Tissues | Cartilage, Adipose, and Blood tissue
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| Organ Systems in the Human Body | 11 organ systems
Integumentary system, skeletal system, muscular system, lymphatic system, respiratory system, digestive system, nervous system, endocrine system, cardiovascular system, urinary system, and reproductive systems.
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| Coronal Planee | cuts body into front (anterior) and back (posterior) pieces
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| Sagittal Plane | cuts body into right and left pieces
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| Transverse Plane | cuts body into top (superior) and bottom (inferior) pieces
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| Superior | above
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| Inferior | below
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| Anterior (Ventral) | front
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| Posterior (Dorsal) | back
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| Medial | closer to midline
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| Lateral | farther away from midline
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| Proximal | closer or towards the body of the trunk/chest/center of the body
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| Distal | farther from the body of the trunk/chest/center of the body
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| Superficial | closer to the outer layer and surface of the body
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| Deep | away from the surface of the body
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| Dorsal cavity | cranial and spinal cavities
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| Ventral cavity | orbits of nasal, oral, thoracic, and abdominopelvic cavities
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| Histiolgy | study of tissues
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| Tissue | group of cells that act together to perform a specific function
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| Epithelial cells | cover, line, and protect the body and its internal organs
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| Connective | framework of the body, providing support and structure for the organs.
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| Nerve | composed of neurons and connective tissue cells that are referred to as neuroglia
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| Muscle | ability to contract or shorten
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| Voluntary Muscle | skeletal muscle
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| Involuntary Muscle | smooth muscle and cardiac muscle
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| Cell | basic unit of life and major building block of tissues and organs
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| Nucleus | contains DNA and ribosomes
important in the synthesis of proteins
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| Proteins | include enzymes that regulate all chemical reactions within the body
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| Mitosis | necessary for growth and repair
DNA is duplicated and distributed evenly to two daughter cells
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| Meiosis | cell devision that takes place in gonads (ovaries and testes)
chromosome number reduced from 46 to 23 so zygote will have correct number of chromosomes
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| Epidermis | outer layer of skin
dead, keratinized epithelial cells
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| Dermis | underlying layer of connective tissue
with blood vessels, nerve endings, and associated skin structures
rests on subcutaneous tissue that connects skin to superficial muscles
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| Layers of Epidermis | outer layer to inner layer
Corneum, lucidum, granulosum, germinativum (includes basale and spinosum)
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| Melanin | in epidermal cells
protects against radiation from the sun
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| Dermis composed of | fibrous connective tissue with blood vessels, sensory nerve endings, hair follicles, and glands.
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| Eccrine sweat gland | most widely distributed
regulates body temp by releasing a watery secretion that evaporates from surface of the skin
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| Apocrine sweat gland | mainly in armpits and groin
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| Sebaceous glands | release oily secretion (sebum) through the hair follicles that lubricates skin and prevents drying
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| Appendages of skin | hair and nails
composed of keratin
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| Body framework | bone, cartilage, ligaments, and joints
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| Function of Skeletal system | support, movement, blood cell formation, protection of internal organs, detoxification, provision for muscle attachment, and mineral storage (calcium and phosphorus)
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| Long bone | has irregular epiphysis at each end - composed of spongy (cancellous) bone
shaft or diaphysis - composed of compact bone
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| Osteogenics | cells that become osteoblasts
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| Osteoblasts | cells that form compact bones
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| Osteocytes | cells imbedded in bone that stop dividing and become fixed
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| Synovial Joints | joints that move against each other
Ball and socket (shoulder and hip)
Hinge (knee and elbow)
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| Axial Skeletal | consists of
Skull, vertebral column, twelve pairs of ribs, and sternum.
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| Skull composed of | 28 bones
14 facial, 14 cranial
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| Facial bones | 2 nasal, 2 zygomatic, one mandible (only moveable bone in skull), 2 palatine, 1 vomer, 2 lacrimal bones, and 2 inferior nasal conchae.
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| Cranium bones | occipital, frontal, ethmoid, sphenoid, parietal, temporal, and ossicles of the ear.
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| Vertebral column | 7 cervical
12 thoracic
5 lumbar
5 sacral
coccygeal
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| Appendicular Skeletal | girdles and limbs- pectoral or shoulder girdle, clavicle, scapula, and upper extremity
bones of the arm
pelvic girdle or os coxae- fused ilium, ischium, and pubis
bones of legs
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| Muscles contraction | contract in response to nervous stimulation
results from sliding together of actin and myosin filaments within the muscle cell or fiber
Calcium and ATP must be present for muscle to contract
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| Muscle cells consist of | myofibrils
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| Myofibrils made up of | smaller units called sarcomeres
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| Prime mover | muscle that executes a given movement
synergists work in cooperation
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| Antagonist | muscle that produces opposite movement
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| Flexors | reduce angle at joint
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| Extensors | increase angle
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| Abductors | draw limb away from midline
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| Adductors | draw limb towards midline
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| Temporalis muscle | side of head
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| Zygomaticus muscle | cheek
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| Quadriceps muscles | rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, vastus medialis, vastus intermedius
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| Gastrocnemius muscles | calf area
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| Deltoid muscle | shoulder area
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| Pectoralis major muscle | chest (pec area)
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| Serratus anterior muscle | ribs
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| Heart flow | Right atrium
Right ventricle
Pulmonary artery
Left atrium
Left ventricle
Aorta
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| Blood enters heart from body through | Superior/Inferior vena cava
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| Vena cava to | Right atrium
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| Right atrium through | tricuspid valve
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| Tricuspid valve to | Right ventricle
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| Right Ventricle through | Pulmonic valve
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| Pulmonic valve to | Pulmonary artery
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| Pulmonary artery is | delivered to lungs
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| Lungs to | Left atrium
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| Left atrium through | mitral valve
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| Mitral valve to | Left ventricle
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| Left ventricle through | Aortic valve
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| Aortic valve to | Aorta
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| Aorta to | the body
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| Veins goes to | the heart
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| Arteries goes | away from the heart
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| Dexoxygenated | right
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| Oxygenated | left
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| Epicardium | outer layer of heart
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| Myocardium | second layer of heart, allows blood in and out
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| Endocardium | lines inside of the heart
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| Endocrine system | assists the nervous system in homeostasis and plays important roles in growth and sexual maturation
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| Endocrine system and nervous system meet at | hypothalamus and pituitary gland
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| Hormones | chemical messengers that control growth, differentiation, and metabolism of specific target cells
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| Two groups of hormones | steroid and non-steroid hormones
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| Steroid hormones | enter target cells and have a direct effect on the DNA of the nucleus
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| Non-steroid hormones | protein hormones
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| Protein hormones | remain at the cell surface and act through a second messenger- AMP
affect cell activity by altering rate of protein synthesis
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| Pituitary gland | master gland
at the base of the brain, right under the hypothalamus, and is considered the “master” gland because it affects other glands in the body
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| Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) | secreted by the posterior pituitary gland and acts on the kidney to preserve fluid and electrolyte balance by increasing water reabsorption
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| Luteinizing hormone (LH) | secreted by the anterior pituitary gland and occurs midway through the menstrual cycle, it triggers ovulation and creates the corpus luteum
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| Follicle stimulation hormone (FSH) | secreted by the anterior pituitary gland and helps eggs mature and causes the menstrual cycle to start in females at puberty.
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| Prolactin | secreted by the anterior pituitary gland and is responsible for milk production; lactation
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| Estrogen | produced in the sex organs and promotes growth and development in females
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| Testosterone | produced in the sex organs and promotes growth and development in males
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| Aldosterone | produced by the adrenal gland and increases reabsorption of sodium ions (and eventually water like ADH) from the nephron
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| Oxytocin | secreted by the posterior pituitary gland and triggers childbirth
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| Serotonin | main hormone for regulating mood and feelings of well-being
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| Pineal gland | situated right between the two brain hemispheres and produces the hormone melatonin which modulates sleep patterns
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| Adrenal gland | found on top of the kidney and secretes cortisol
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| Parathyroid gland | regulates the amount of calcium that flows into the blood and bones
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| Hypothalamus | organ in the brain that is responsible for keeping our body at homeostasis, it is considered the “command center’ of the brain” and is anatomically attached to the pituitary gland and therefore controls body temp., fatigue, hunger, and thirst.
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| Central nervous system | brain and spinal
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| Peripheral nervous system | cranial nerves and neurons in body
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| Main parts of a neuron | body, axon, and dendrites
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| Dendrites | transmit impulse towards the cell
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| Axon | transmit impulse away from cell
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| Sensory (afferent) neurons | transmit nerve impulses towards CNS
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| Motor (efferent) neurons | transmit nerve impulses away from CNS towards muscles, glands, and digestive organs
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| Parasympathetic system | rest and digest
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| Sympathetic system | fight or flight
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| Cerebellum | directs motor control (muscle coordination), balance, and equilibrium
MUSCULAR COORDINATION
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| Cerebrum | assists with motor control and cognitive functions such as learning
MOVEMENT AND SENSORY
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| Medulla oblongata | brain stem of the brain which connects the spinal cord to the brain; controls autonomic functions (parasympathetic, sympathetic)
RESPIRATION AND HEART RATE
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| Olfactory nerve | sensory component for the sense of smell
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| Optic nerve | registers visual information
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| Vagus nerve | slows down the heart rate
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| Spinal cord length | 18 inches
extends from base of skull (foramen magnum) to first or second lumbar (L1 or L2)
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| How many spinal nerves exit the spinal cord? | 31 pairs
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| Simple (spinal) reflexes | nerve impulses travel through the spinal cord ONLY and do not reach the brain
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| Blood consists of how much plasma? | 55%
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| Systole | contraction phase
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| Diastole | relaxation phase
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