A & P
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| Homeostasis | the relatively constant states maintained by the body
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| Integumentary | separates internal environment from external environment, providing stability of internal fluid volume
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| Skeletal | supports and protects internal environment, allowing movement; stores minerals that can be moved into and out of internal fluid
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| Muscular | powers and directs movements; provides heat
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| Nervous | regulates homeostatic mechanisms, sensing changes, integrating information, sending signals to effectors
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| Endocrine | regulates homeostasis by secreting signaling hormones that travel through internal environment to effector cells
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| Cardiovascular | maintains internal constancy by transporting nutrients, water, oxygen, hormones, wastes, and other materials and heat within the internal environment
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| Lymphatic | maintains constant fluid pressure by draining excess fluid from tissues, cleaning it, and recycling it to bloodstream
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| Immune | defends internal environment against harmful agents
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| Respiratory | maintains stable O2 and CO2 levels in body by exchanging these gases between external and internal environments; provides vocal communication with others for protection, hunting, etc.
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| Digestive | maintains relatively constant nutrient level in body by digesting food and absorbing nutrients into internal environment
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| Urinary | maintains constantly low level of waste and regulates pH of internal environment; helps maintain constancy of internal water volume and balance of ions and other substances
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| Reproductive | passes genetic code containing information for forming a body and maintaining homeostasis to offspring
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| There is a minimum of four basic components in every feedback control loop | 1. Sensor mechanism 2. Integrator or control center 3. Effector mechanism 4. Feedback
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| Sensor | any agent or mechanism that detects a change in conditions (or stimulus) inside or outside the body, such as a sensory receptor
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| Integrator | an integration center or control center that receives sensed information and compares that to stored or setpoint information, possibly sending a response to an effector that will act to change the value of the sensed information
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| Effectors | organ, gland, or muscle that responds to a regulatory control signal, such as a nerve stimulus or hormone
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| Negative feedback | feedback control system in which the level of a variable is changed in the direction opposite to that of the initial stimulus
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| Positive feedback | feedback control system that is stimulatory; tends to amplify or reinforce a change in the internal environment
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| Feed-forward | concept that information may flow ahead to another process to trigger a change in anticipation of an event that will follow
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| Intracellular control | level of homeostatic control of body processes that occurs within cells, as in genetic regulation or enzymatic regulation of the cell
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| Intrinsic control | level of homeostatic control of body processes that occurs within a particular tissue or organ, as when local regulators such as prostaglandins regulate local physiology
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| Extrinsic control | style of physiological regulation in which the control center (regulatory center) is outside, or extrinsic to, the tissue being regulated; for example, the brain’s control of a leg muscle or the pituitary gland’s regulation of the thyroid gland
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| Epidemiology | study of the occurrence, distribution, and transmission of diseases in human populations
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| Idiopathic | refers to a disease of undetermined cause
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| Prions | short for “proteinaceous infectious particles,” which are proteins that convert proteins of the cell into different proteins and the altered form of the protein may then be inherited; may act as a pathogen, forming abnormal protein tangles in brain cells
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| Ions | ions can be positively or negaitively charged and that ions with opposite charges are attracted to each other
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| Signal transduction | process of changing a signal such as a hormone or neurotransmitter into another form such as enzymatic reaction within the cell receiving the signal
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| Hydrogen bonds | hydrogen bonds are much weaker forces than ionic or covalent bonds they require less energy to break. hydrogen bonds result from unequal charge distribution on a molecule
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| Chromatin | threadlike form of DNA, making up the genetic material in the nucleus
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| Microfilaments | smallest cell fibers
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| Three basic types of chemical reactions | 1. Synthesis reactions 2. Decomposition reactions 3. Exchange reaction
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| Synthesis reactions | chemical reaction that combines two or more reactants to form a more complex structure
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| Exchange reactions | chemical reaction that breaks down a compound and then synthesizes a new compound by switching portions of the molecules
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| Intermediate filaments | twisted strands of protein, slightly larger than microfilaments that make up part of the cell’s internal skeleton
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| Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) | is made up of broad, flattened sacs that extend outward from the boundary of the nucleus
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| Dehydration synthesis | anabolic process by which molecules are joined to form larger molecules; often called condensation reaction because it joins molecules together into a denser mass
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| Buffers | compound that combines with an acid or with a base to form a weaker acid or base, thereby lessening the change in hydrogen ion concentration that would occur without the buffer; often operates as buffer pairs
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| Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) | No ribosomes border the membranous wall; part of the network is usually more tubular in structure than the flattened sacs of the RER
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| Endoderm | innermost layer of the primary germ layers that develops early in the first trimester of pregnancy; gives rise to digestive and urinary structures, as well as many other glands and organ parts
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| Mesoderm | middle layer of the primary germ layers; gives rise to such structures as muscle, bones, and blood vessels
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| Ectoderm | outermost of the primary germ layers that develops early in the first trimester of pregnancy; gives rise to the skin and the nervous system
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| Proteins | large molecules formed by linkage of amino acids by peptide bonds; one of the basic building blocks of the body
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| Glycoproteins | substance made of molecules that are a combined form of carbohydrate and protein
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| Proteoglycans | large molecule made up of a protein strand that forms a backbone to which are attached many carbohydrate molecules
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| Polysaccharides | complex sugar or starch, such as glycogen and plant starches; made up of many monosaccharides
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| Three types of exocrine glands may be identified | 1. Apocrine 2. Holocrine 3. Merocrine
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| Stratum basal | “base layer”; deepest layer of the epidermis; cells in this layer are able to reproduce themselves
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| Friction ridges | raised underlying dermal papillae; form fingerprints
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| Stratum spinosum | “spiny layer”; layer of epidermis that is rich in RNA to aid in protein synthesis required for keratin production
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| Stratum granulosum | “granular layer”; layer in which the process of keratinization begins
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| Stratum lucidum | “clear” layer of the epidermis, in thick skin between the stratum granulosum and the stratum corneum
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| Stratum corneum | tough outer layer of the epidermis; cells are filled with keratin
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| Eumelanin | type of melanin pigment that is dark brown in color
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| Pheomelanin | type of melanin pigment that is reddish in color
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| Diaphysis | shaft of a long bone
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| Epiphyses | end of a long bone; also, the pineal body of the brain
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| Articular cartilage | either of a pair of cartilages found in the supporting framework of the larynx
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| Periosteum | tough, connective tissue covering the bone
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| Medullary cavity | hollow area inside the diaphysis of the bone that contains yellow marrow
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| Interstitial growth | cartilage growth following mitosis and secre-tion of matrix by chondrocytes; interstitial growth of epiphyseal plate results in growth in length of long bones
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| Appositional growth | process by which a flat bone or cartilage grows in size by addition of bony cartilage at its surface
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| Endochondral ossification | process by which bones are formed by replacement of cartilage models
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| Intramembranous ossification | process by which most flat bones are formed within connective tissue membranes
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| Ossification centers | bone formation centers
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| Primary ossification center | where a blood vessel enters the cartilage of a developing bone at the midpoint of the diaphysis to initiate bone formation
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| Secondary ossification centers | growth center located in the epiphyses of long bones
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| Metaphysis | hollow area inside the diaphysis of the bone that contains yellow marrow
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| Synarthroses | joint in which fibrous connective tissue joins bones and holds them together tightly; commonly called sutures
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| Amphiarthroses | slightly movable joint such as the one that connects the two pubic bones
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| Diarthroses | freely movable joint
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| Gomphoses | fibrous joint where a process is inserted into a socket; for example, the joint between the tooth and mandible
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| Syndesmoses | fibrous joint
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| Synchondroses | joint characterized by the presence of hyaline cartilage between articulating bones
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| Biaxial joints | skeletal articulation that has two axes of movement
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| Multiaxial joints | joint that permits movement around three or more axes and in three or more planes
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| Radioulnar joints | articulation of the head of the radius and the radial notch of the ulna
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| Radiocarpal joints | the point of articulation where the radius distally articulates directly with the carpal bones
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| Intercarpal joints | articulation between the eight carpal bones
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| Carpometacarpal joints | skeletal articulation between a wrist (carpal) bone and hand (metacarpal) bone
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| Interphalangeal joints | articulation that exists between the heads of the phalanges and the bases of the more distal phalanges
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| Prepatellar bursitis | inflammation of the prepatellar bursa; also called “housemaid’s knee”
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| Satellite cells | a type of Schwann cell (neuroglial cell) that sur-rounds the cell bodies of neurons of the peripheral nervous system
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| Isotonic contraction | type of muscle contraction in which the muscle sustains the same tension or pressure and a change in the distance between two bones occurs
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| Isometric contraction | level of homeostatic control of body processes that occurs within cells, as in genetic regulation or enzymatic regulation of the cell
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