Biology Exam 2
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| aerobic | oxygenized
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| anaerobic | deoxygenized
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| substrate level phosphorylation | Phosphate group is transferred to ADP from an enzyme substrate, in this case the organic molecule
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| electron carriers | carry electrons (and energy) from one set of reactions to another
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| electron transport chain | transfer electrons along a series of membrane-associated proteins to a final electron acceptor and in the process harness the energy released to produce ATP
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| oxidative phosphorylation | In aerobic respiration, oxygen is the final electron acceptor, resulting in the formation of water.
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| oxidation | loss of electrons
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| reduction | gain of electrons
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| oxidation-reduction reaction | chemical reactions in which electrons are transferred from one atom or molecule to another
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| electron carries act as | shuttles
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| in aerobic respiration, glucose is | oxidized
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| in aerobic respiration, oxygen is | reduced
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| what does aerobic respiration produce | water
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| in glucose, electrons are shared | equally
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| in carbon dioxide, electrons are shared | unequally
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| electrons are more likely to be found near | the oxygen atom
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| first stage of cellular respiration | glycolysis
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| second stage of cellular respiration | pyruvate oxidation
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| third stage of cellular respiration | citric acid cycle
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| fourth stage of cellular respiration | oxidative phosphorylation
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| glycolysis | glucose is partially broken down to make pyruvate and energy is transferred to ATP and reduced electron carriers
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| produced in pyruvate oxidation | reduced electron carriers
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| released in pyruvate oxidation | carbon dioxide
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| enters the citric acid cycle | Acetyl-CoA
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| the acetyl group is completely oxidized to | carbon dioxide
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| in o.p, electron carriers donate electrons to | electron transport chain
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| glycolysis takes place in the | cytoplasm
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| the electron transport chain is made up of | proteins and small molecules
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| cellular respiration for bacteria take place in the | cytoplasm
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| where is the electron transport chain in bacteria | plasma membrane
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| produced in glycolysis | pyruvate
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| 6-carbon sugar | glucose
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| first phase of glycolysis | preparatory phase
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| second phase of glycolysis | cleavage phase
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| third phase of glycolysis | pay off phase
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| what type of process is the preparatory phase | endergonic
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| what does preparatory phase add to glucose | phosphate
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| what is produced in the payoff phase | ATP and NADH
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| where does pyruvate oxidation take place | mitochondrial matrix
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| mitochondria | Rod shaped organelles surrounded by a double membrane
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| inter membrane space | Space between inner and outer membranes
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| mitochondrial matrix | space enclosed by inner membrane
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| what is pyruvate converted into in pyruvate oxidation | acetyl-CoA
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| the citric acid cycle takes place in the | mitochondrial matrix
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| produces the most energy | citric acid cycle
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| the citric acid cycle supplies electrons to the | electron transport chain
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| the citric acid cycle produces | ATP and electron carriers
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| what is regenerated again at the end of the citric acid cycle? | oxaloacetate
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| how many carbons are eliminated in the citric acid cycle | 2
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| what are the carbons released as in the citric acid cycle | carbon dioxide
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| some bacteria run the cycle in | reverse
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| how many complexes make up the electron transport chain | 4
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| Reduced coenzyme Q transfers electrons to | complex 3
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| cytochrome c transfers electrons to | complex 4
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| Complex IV reduces oxygen to | water
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| Complexes I and II accept | electrons
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| The buildup of protons in the intermembrane space results in a | proton electrochemical gradient
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| the electron transport chain transfers | electrons and pump protons
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| the complexes are imbedded in the | mitochondrial inner membrane
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| each donor and accepter are a | redox couple
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| transfer of electrons through complexes 1,3,4 are done by | pumping proteins
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| the inner mitochondrial membrane is | selectively permeable
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| mutualism | both parties benefit
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| commensalism | one party benefits with little to no effect on the other
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| parasitism | one party benefits at the expense of the other
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| plants carry out _________ and ____________ | photosynthesis and cellular respiration
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| animals carry out _____________ | cellular respiration
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| endosymbiont theory | Chloroplasts and mitochondria have evolved directly from bacteria that were internalized into another prokaryotic cell
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| symbiosis | living together
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| mitochondrial ancestor was effective at | respiration and utilizing complex chemicals
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| chloroplast ancestor was | photosynthetic
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| chloroplasts are like __________ power plants | solar
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| mitochondria are like __________ power plants | coal
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| stroma | thick fluid in the chloroplast
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| what does cellular respiration require | oxygen
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| what does cellular respiration produce | carbon dioxide
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| what type of process is photosynthesis | anabolic
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| what type of process is cellular respiration | catabolic
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| isomer | converts glucose to fructose structure
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| what type of energy source is a proton gradient | potential
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| the inner mitochondrial membrane is | selectively permeable
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| what are the two types of gradients | chemical and electrical
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| why does the chemical gradient take place | the difference in concentration
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| why does the electrical gradient take place | due to the difference of charge on both sides of the membrane
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| another name for proton gradient | electrochemical gradient
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| proton gradients have a high concentration in the | inter membrane
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| proton gradients have a low concentration in the | mitochondrial matrix
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| converts energy from proton gradient to ATP | synthase
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| ATP synthase | An enzyme that couples the movement of protons through the enzyme with the synthesis of ATP.
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| in lactic acid fermentation, pyruvate is reduced to _________ | lactic acid
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| in ethanol fermentation, pyruvate is reduced to ____________ | ethanol
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| Fermentation | extracts energy from glucose in the absence of oxygen
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| why is fermentation used | for anaerobic organisms or organisms that favor it over oxidative phosphorylation
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| The 2 major pathways of fermentation | lactic acid fermentation and ethanol fermentation
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| lactic acid fermentation occurs in | animals and bacteria
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| ethanol fermentation occurs in | plants and fungi
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| fermentation yields | 2 ATP
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| stored in animals | glycogen
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| stored in plants | starch
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| excess glucose is as | glycogen
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| Fatty acids and proteins are a useful source of | energy
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| Fatty acid molecules are rich in | carbon
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| Beta Oxidation | The process of shortening fatty acids by a series of reactions that sequentially remove two carbon units from their ends.
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| Beta Oxidation produces | NADH and FADH2
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| the brain and red blood cells depend on __________ for energy | glucose
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| what does the ATP level in a cell indicate | the energy a cell has available
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| photic zone | The surface layer of the ocean through which enough sunlight penetrates to enable photosynthesis
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| the source of all food we eat | photosynthesis
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| what type of reaction is photosynthesis | redox
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| what is synthesized during photosynthesis | carbohydrates from CO2 molecules
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| during photosynthesis, ______ molecules are reduced | CO2
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| water | the ultimate electron donor
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| photosynthetic electron transport chain | A series of redox reactions in which light energy absorbed by chlorophyll is used to power the movement of electrons; in oxygenic photosynthesis, the electrons ultimately come from water and the terminal electron acceptor is NADP+
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| ATP and NADPH | energy sources needed to synthesize carbohydrates
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| specialized membranes | where the photosynthetic electron transport takes place
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| where does photosynthesis take place in eukaryotes | chloroplast
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| thylakoid membrane | A highly folded membrane in the center of the chloroplast that contains light-collecting pigments and that is the site of the photosynthetic electron transport chain
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| where is the photosynthetic electron transport chain located | thylakoid membrane
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| grana | (singular, granum) Interlinked structures that form the thylakoid membrane
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| lumen | n eukaryotes, the continuous interior of the endoplasmic reticulum; in plants, a fluid-filled compartment enclosed by the thylakoid membrane; generally, the interior of any tubelike structure
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| stroma | The region surrounding the thylakoid, where carbohydrate synthesis takes place
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| carbohydrate synthesis takes place in the | stroma
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| carbohydrates are broken down to make | ATP
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| first step of the Calvin cycle in photosynthesis | addition of CO2
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| second step of Calvin cycle in photosynthesis | reduction
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| third step of Calvin cycle in photosynthesis | regeneration
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| the reducing agent of the Calvin cycle (photosynthesis) | NADPH
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| The regeneration of RuBP requires | ATP
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| the Calvin cycle does not use sunlight ___________ | directly
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| Calvin cycle only occurs in _______ | light
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| visible light is absorbed by __________ | chlorophyll
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| antenna chlorophyll molecules | transfer absorbed light energy to the reaction center
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| endosymbiosis | The process in which one cell takes up residence inside of another cell
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| signaling cell | the source of a signaling molecule
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| signaling molecule | The carrier of information transmitted when the signaling molecule binds to a receptor; also referred to as a ligand
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| receptor protein | The molecule on the responding cell that binds to the signaling molecule
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| Responding cell | The cell that receives information from the signaling molecule
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| quorum sensing | a process by which bacteria are able to determine whether they are at low or high population density and then turn on specific genes across the entire community
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| Receptor Activation | The “turning on” of a receptor, which often occurs when a signaling molecule binds to a receptor on a responding cell
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| signal transduction | The process in which an extracellular molecule acts as a signal to activate a receptor, which transmits information through the cytoplasm
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| Response | A change in cellular behavior, such as activation of enzymes or genes, following a signal
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| Termination | In protein translation, the time at which the addition of amino acids stops and the completed polypeptide chain is released from the ribosome. In cell communication, the stopping of a signal
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| Termination protects the cell from | overreacting
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| When the two cells are far apart, the signaling molecule is transported by the | circulatory system
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| endocrine signaling | takes place over long distances and often relies on the circulatory system for transport of signaling molecules, travel through bloodstream
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| Paracrine signaling | Signaling by a molecule that travels a short distance to the nearest neighboring cell to bind its receptor and deliver its message
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| Growth Factor | Any one of a group of small, soluble molecules, usually the signal in paracrine signaling, that affect cell growth, cell division, and changes in gene expression
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| Neurons | nerve cells that do short distance signaling
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| Autocrine Signaling | Signaling between different parts of a cell; the signaling cell and the responding cell are one and the same
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| autocrine signaling is important to | multicellular organisms
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| cancer | uses autocrine signaling for cell division
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| Delta protein | signaling molecule
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| Notch | receptor
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| Ligand | Alternative term for a signaling molecule that binds with a receptor, usually a protein
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| Ligand-binding site | The specific location on the receptor protein where a signaling molecule binds
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| G protein coupled receptor | A receptor that couples to G proteins, which bind to the guanine nucleotides GTP and GDP
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| G protein | A protein that binds to the guanine nucleotides GTP and GDP
A second group of cell-surface receptors are themselves enzymes, which are activated when the receptor binds its ligand
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| Receptor Kinase | A receptor that is an enzyme that adds a phosphate group to another molecule
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| Phosphatases | An enzyme that removes a phosphate group from another molecule
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| First step of cell signaling | receptor activation
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| second messenger | An intermediate cytosolic signaling molecule that transmits signals from a receptor to a target within the cell. (First messengers transmit signals from outside the cell to a receptor.)
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| Binding affinity | The tightness of the binding between the receptor and the signaling molecule
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| Tissue | A collection of cells that work together to perform a specific function
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| Organ | Two or more tissues that combine and function together
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| Cytoskeleton | In Eukaryotes, an internal protein scaffold that helps cells to maintain their shape and serves as a network of tracks for movement of substances within cells
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| Cell junction | A complex of proteins in the plasma membrane where a cell makes contact with another cell or extracellular matrix
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| Extracellular matrix | In eukaryotes, an internal protein scaffold that helps cells to mainain their shapeand serves as a network of tracks for the movement of substances within cells
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| Epithelial Cells | cells arranged in one or more layers
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| Epithelial Tissue | Made up of epithelial cells
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| Basal Lamina | A specialized form of extracellular matrix that underlies and supports all epithelial tissues
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| Tubulin | Dimers that assemble into microfilaments
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| Centrosome | A compact structure that is the microtubule organizing center for animal cells
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| Actin | A protein subunit that makes up microfilaments, used by both striated and smooth muscles to contract and generate force
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| Dynamic Instability | Cycles of shrinkage and growth into microtubules
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| Motor proteins | Any of various proteins that are involved in intracellular transport or cause muscle contraction by moving the actin microfilaments inside muscle cells
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| Kinesin | A motor protein similar in structure to myosin, that transports cargo toward the plus end of microtubules.
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| Dynein | A motor protein that carries cargo away from the plasma membrane toward the minus ends of microtubules
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| Cilia | A hairlike organelle that propels the movement of cells or substances within cells or out of the body; shorter than a flagellum
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| Myosin | A motor protein found in cells that carries cargo to the plus ends of microfilaments and is also used by both striated and smooth muscles to contract and generate force
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| Integrins | A transmembrane protein, present on the surface of virtually every animal cell, that enables cells to adhere to the extracellular matrix
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| Desmosomes | A button like point of adhesion that holds the plasma membranes of adjacent cells together
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| Hemidesmosome | A type of desmosome in which integrins are the prominent cell adhesion molecules
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| Karyotype | arrangement of chromosomes based on shape and number
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| Homologous Chromosomes | one gene from mom and one gene from dad
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| sex chromosomes | chromosomes associated with sex (x and y)
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| Haploid | 1 set of chromosomes
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| Diploid | 2 sets of chromosomes
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| Polypoid | 2+ sets of chromosomes
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| Example of a polypoid | plants
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| sister chromatids | 2 copies of a chromosome
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| How are sister chromatids produced? | replication
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| Centromere | holds sister chromatids together
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| prophase | chromosomes condense
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| pro metaphase | attach chromosomes to centromeres
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| mitotic spindle | separates daughter cells
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| kinetochores | site of spindle fiber attachment
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| metaphase | chromosomes align
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| anaphase | sister chromatids separate (46 chromosomes arrive)
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| telophase | 2 new nuclei prepare for cell division
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| cytokinesis | contractile ring pulled into 2
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| what drives cytokinesis | Ftsz
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| contractile ring | forms against inner cell membrane
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| meiotic cell division | 2 rounds of nuclear division
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| chiasma | crossing over
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| crossover | breakage and reunion of non sister chromatids
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| female cytoplasmic division | divided unequally, cytoplasm distributed
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| male cytoplasmic division | divided equally, cytoplasm eliminated
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| non-identical daughter cells | gametes, sperm, eggs
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| genome | all the cells DNA
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| telomeres | chromosome ends
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| histone charge | positive
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| DNA charge | negative
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| template strand | parental strand synthesizes daughter strand
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| daughter strand | synthesized from parent strand
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| DNA duplex | newly synthesized strand and leftover strand
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| semiconservative replication | DNA duplex synthesizes new daughter strand
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| replication fork | DNA separates as DNA duplex unwinds
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| leading strand | synthesized as long continuous polymer
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| lagging strand | new piece of DNA initiated at intervals
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| Okazaki fragments | small lagging pieces
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| RNA primase | synthesizes RNA
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| DNA ligase | used to close a DNA strand
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| Topoisomerase II | breaks DNA double helix
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| Helicase | unwinds double parental helix
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| origin of replication | where DNA synthesis is initiated
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| replication bubble | opening of DNA duplex
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| telomerase | enzyme containing rNA
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| stem cells | undergo mitotic division
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