Chapters 1,3-5,7,8
Quiz yourself by thinking what should be in
each of the black spaces below before clicking
on it to display the answer.
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| Major groups of microorganisms | Archaea
bacteria
algae
protozoa
fungus
helminth
virus
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| Classification of BACTERIA | Prokaryotes
unicellular, lack a nuclei, smaller than eukaryotes
some extreme environments
reproduce asexually
bacteria cell walls
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| Classification of Archaea | Prokaryotes
unicellular
halophiles
thermophiles
share phenotypic characteristics with bacteria
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| Classification of ALGAE | unicellular or multicellular
photosynthetic
simple reproductive structures
pigmentation
composition of cell wall
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| Classification of PROTOZOA | single celled eukaryotes
live in h2o or animal host
most are asexual and sexual reproduction
capable of locomotion (cilia or flagella)
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| Classification of FUNGI | eukaryotic
obtain food from other organism
molds-multicellular
grow as long filaments
yeasts-unicellular
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| Classification of HELMINTHS | parasitic worms
eukaryotic
multicellular
complex life cycles
many macroscopic
many ways of entry
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| Classification of VIRUS | not living
acellular (proteins and nucleic acids)
must have living cell to reproduce
no metabolism
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| What is the impact of microorganisms on environment (photosynthesis)? | bacteria is ubiquitous (everywhere)
bacteria and algae more than 70% of earths photosynthesis
majority of the oxygen to the atmosphere
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| What is the impact of microorganisms on humans (infectious disease control)? | outnumber human cells 10 to 1
nearly 2000 different microbes can cause diseases
typically on harmful microorganisms
examples: Heart disease, cancer, stroke, pulmonary disease,
diabetes, Alzheimer's disease, flu, pneumonia, kidney disease
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| Who is Louis Pasteur? | developed the theory of spontaneous generation stating that
-living things can originate from anything non-living
-sterile-completely free of life forms
living things discriminate between optical isomers
developed vaccines for anthrax
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| What are the steps of the scientific method? | 1-Observations
2-develop a hypothesis
3-Experiment including control groups
4-Analyze the data
5-Draw a conclusion, reject or accept hypothesis
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| Who is Robert Koch? | developed infectious disease and the rise of pure cultures
simple staining techniques
first photomicrograph of bacteria
steam to sterilize media
aseptic techniques
microbial growth
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| Nomenclature | NAMING of living things appropiately
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| Taxonomy | the science of CLASSIFYING living beings
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| phylogeny | taxonomic scheme that represents the natural relatedness between groups of living things
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| Domain BACTERIA | Prokaryotic
cyanobacteria
Chlamydias Spirochetes
gram positive bacteria
endospore producers
gram negative bacteria
fatty acids with ester linkages
flagella, hook, rings, and hollow filament
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| Domain ARCHAEA | Methane producers
Prokaryotes that live in extreme salt
Prokaryotes that live extreme heat
singular, circular chromosomes
flagella, solid fimbrial like structure
long chain, branched hydrocarbons with ether linkages
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| Domain EUKARYA | EUKARYOTES
plants, animals, fungi, protozoa
several, linear chromosomes
flagella, 9" + 2" microtubule arrangement
fatty acids with ester linkages
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| Binomial system | a combination of the genus and species name
-genus name-capitalized
-species-lower case
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| Which of the following is not considered a microorganism? -algae -bacterium -protozoan -mushroom | Mushroom
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| Which process involves the deliberate alteration of an organism's genetic material? -bioremediation -biotechnology -decomposition -recombinant DNA technology | recombinant DNA technology
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| Which of the following parts was absent from Leeuwenhock 's microscopes? -focusing screw -lens -specimen holder -condenser | Condenser
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| Abiogenesis refers to the -spontaneous generation of organisms from nonliving matter -development of life forms from preexisting life forms -development of aseptic techniques -germ theory of disease | spontaneous generation of organisms from nonliving matter
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| A hypothesis can be defined as -a belied based on knowledge -knowledge based on belief -a scientific explanation that is subject to testing -a theory that has been thoroughly tested | a scientific explanation that is subject to testing
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| When a hypothesis has been thoroughly supported by long term study and data, it is considered -a law -a speculation -a theory -proved | a theory
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| Which is the correct order of the taxonomic categories, going from most specific to most general? | species
genus
family
order
class
phylum
kingdom
domain
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| Which of the following are not eukaryotic? -bacteria -archaea -protozoa -both a and b | bacteria and archaea
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| Order the following items by size, sm to lg | atom
protein
adenovirus
rickettsia
coccus-shaped bacterium
white blood cell
amoeba
helminths
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| The five I's | inoculation
incubation
isolation
inspection
identification
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| inoculation | producing a culture, microbes must be provided with all of their required nutrients in an artificial medium
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| Incubation | microbial growth-increases in a population of microbes
liquid medium-cloudiness
solid medium- discrete colony or a biofilm
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| isolation | goal is to get colonies that consist of just one species
pure culture
subclture
streak plate method
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| inspection | colonies and broth culture are observed for growth characteristics that could be useful for analyzing the specimen content
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| identification | determination of the type of microbe, usually to the level of species
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| three categories of Media classification | physical state
chemical composition
functional type
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| physical state | liquid
semisolid
solid can convert to liquid
solid that can't be liquidified
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| chemical composition | chemically definied
complex
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| functional type | general purpose
enriched
selective
differential
anaerobic growth
specimen transport
assay
enumeration
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| Pure culture | container of medium that contains only a single known species or type of microorganism
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| mixed culture | container that holds 2 or more identified, easily differentiated species or microorganisms
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| contaminated culture | culture that was once pure or mixed that now contains contaminants or unwanted microbes of uncertain identity
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| streak plate method | small droplet of culture or sample is spread across the surface of a medium with an innoculating loop. gradually thins out the sample and separates cells
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| pour plate method | method of choice for counting the number of colony forming bacteria present in a liquid specimen
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| serial dilutions | a series of sequential dilutions used to reduce a dense culture of cells to a more usable concentration
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| microbial dimensions small to largest | virus
bacteria
yeast
red blood cell
protozoan
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| magnification on a microscope | apparent enlargement of a specimen
clear glass sphere can magnify most objects
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| resolution on a microscope | the capacity of an optical system to distinguish or separate 2 adjacent objects or points from one another
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| contrast on a microscope | differences in intensity between 2 objects, or an object and its background
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| brightfield microscope (compound) | 2 sets of lens and ocular lens
objective magnification x ocular magnification= total mag
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| phase contrast microscope | improves the contrast of a sample without the use of a stain
visualization of live samples
image of dark cells on a light background
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| dark field microscope | light reaches the specimen from the sides
image appears light on a dark background
excellent for observing motility
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| Cationic dyes | basic dyes stain acidic structures
positive stain
cells are typically negative
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| anionic dyes | acidic dyes background, repelled by acidic
negatively charged components on bacteria cell wall
negative stain
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| gram stain | gram positive is purple
gram negative is pink
crystal violet as primary stain
iodine is mordant
ethanol is a decolorizer
safranin is a counterstain
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| The term culture refers to the _____ growth of microorganisms in __________. -rapid, an incubator -macroscopic, media -microscopic, the body -artificial, colonies | macroscopic, media
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| a mixed culture | contains 2 or more known species
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| Resolution is _____ with a longer wavelength of light. -improved -worsened -not changed -not possible | worsened
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| A real image is produced by the -ocular -objective -condenser -eye | objective
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| A microscope that has a total magnification of 1500x when using the oil immersion objective has an ocular of what power? -150x -1.5x -15x -30x | 15x
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| The specimen for an electron microscope is always -stained with dyes -sliced into thin sections -killed -viewed directly | killed
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| Motility i sbest observed with a -hanging drop preparation -negative stain -streak plate -flagellar stain | hanging drop preparation
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| Bacteria tend to stain more readily with cationic positively charged dyes because bacterial surfaces -contain large amounts of alkaline substances -contain large amounts of acidic substances -are neutral -have thick cell walls | contain large amounts of acidic substances
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| a fastidious organism must be grown on what type of medium? -general purpose medium -differential medium -defined medium -enriched medium | both defined medium and enriched medium can be used
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| Bacteria and archaea vs. Eukaryotes | bacteria can reproduce, metabolize, and nutrient processing
bacteria does not wind DNA and archaea does
bacteria and archaea have nuclear material free in cytoplasm
eukaryotes have a nucles and wind with DNA
bacteria cell wall made up of peptidoglycan
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| Morphology and arrangement of cells | 3 basic shapes
coccus-round
bacillus-oval
spirillium-spiral
diplo-2
tetrads-groups of four
staphylo-grapes
strepto-chains of a few to a hundred
sarcina-cube packet of 8,16 or more
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| Gram positive cell wall vs. gram negative cell wall | -gram positive peptidoglycan layer is thick, has teichoic acids and lipoteichoic acids
-gram negative is thin and has porins, periplasm, and lipoproteins
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| Mycoplasma | groups of pathogenic bacteria
membrane is stabilized by sterols and is resistant to lysis
ex: chlamydia
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| mycobacterium | lipids (mycolic acid) in the cell wall increase survival
ex:TB
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| glycocalyces | gelatinous, sticky substance surrounding outside of the cell
polysaccharides or polypeptides
2 types can accumulate, capsule or slime layer
biofilms
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| Flagella structure | responsible for movement
long structures that extend beyond cell surface
are not present on all bacteria
filament, hook, and basal body
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| monotrichous (polar) | single flagellum
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| Lophotrichous (polar) | small bunches or tufts
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| amphitrichous (polar) | flagella at both poles of the cell
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| peritrichous | flagella are dispersed randomly over the surface of the cell
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| atrichous | no flagella
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| fimbriae | -sticky, bristle like projections
-used by bacteria to adhere to one another and to substance in
environment
-serve an important function in biofilms
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| pili (sex pilus) | -special type of fimbria
-fimbriae<pili<flagella
-only a few per cell
-sex pilus/transfer DNA from one cell to another
-some pili can provide motility
-controlled genetically in G bacteria
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| endospores | structure produced by some bacteria that can withstand hostile conditions and facilitate survival
can resist: heating, drying, freezing, radiation, and chemicals
gram positive bacillus
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| endospores gram positive bacillus and medical importance | ex: anthrax, botulism, tetanus
-some diseases are related to the persistence and resistance of their spores
-endospores are constant intruders where sterility and cleanliness are important
-hosp must protect against endospores in wounds
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| methanogens | -convert CO2 and H2 into methane CH4
-common inhabitants of anaerobic swamp mud, bottom of lake
-gas produced in swamps may become source of fuel
-contribute to greenhouse gas
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| hyperthermophiles | -flourish at temps between 80 and 113 degrees Celsius and cannot grow below 50 degrees Celsius
-live in volcanic waters and soils
-often salt and acid tolerant
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| psychrophiles | adapted to grow at very low temps
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| halophiles | -require salt to grow
-can multiply in 36% NaCl that would destroy most cells
-exist inland seas, salt lakes, salt mines
-use red pigment to synthesize ATP in presence of light
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| Parts of a microscope | objective lens-magnifications
illuminator-steady light source instead of a mirror
condensor-focus light onto the specimen, useful at highest power
diaphragm-rotating disk under stage used in varying the
intensity and size of a cone of light
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| classification of bacteria | divisions
diagnostic scheme
subgroups
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| divisions | gracilicutes-gram neg cell walls, thin
firmicutes-gram pos cell walls, thick and strong
tenericutes-lack a cell wall, soft
mendosicutes-archaea
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| diagnostic scheme | gram pos
gram neg
bacteria without cell walls
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| subgroups | cell shape
arrangements
oxygen usage (aerobic, anaerobic, facultative)
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| gram stain and how it works | developed by Hans Christian Gram
2 major groups of bacteria, gram + and gram-
dif. lie in the structure of the cell envelope
iodine forms with crystal violet in peptidoglycan layer for gram +
strips lipids in outer mem and decolors layer in gram -
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| Which of the following is not found in all bacteria cells? -cytoplasmic membrane -a nucleoid -ribosomes -actin-like cytoskeleton | actin like cytoskeleton
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| Pili are tubular shafts in ____bacteria that serve as a means of _____. | gram negative, genetic exchange
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| An example of a glycocalyx is -a capsule -a pilus -an outer membrane -a cell wall | a capsule
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| Which of the following is a primary bacterial cell wall function? -transport -motility -support -adhesion | support
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| Which of the following is present in both gram + and gram - cell walls -an outer membrane -peptidoglycan -teichoic acid -lipopolysaccharides | peptidoglycan
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| Darkly stained granules are connected crystals of _____ that are found in _____ | PO4, Corynebacterium
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| Bacterial endospores usually function in -reproduction -survival -protein synthesis -storage | survival
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| A bacterial arrangement in packets of eight cells is described as a -micrococcus -diplococcus -tetrad -sarcina | sarcina
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| To which division of bacteria does E. coli belong? -Tenericutes -Gracilicutes -Firmicutes -Mendosicutes | Gracilicutes
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| Which stain is used to distinguish differences between the cell walls of medically important bacteria? -simple stain -acridine orange stain -gram stain -negative stain | gram stain
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| Mycoses | fungal infections of humans and animalssaprobes
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| saprobes vs. parasitic | saprobes feed primarily on organic detritus from dead organisms
parasites derive nutrients from the cells and tissues of a host
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| sexual life cycle | -strains of different mating types must meet (hyphae or mycelium) for sexual spore formation
-allow for genetic variation
-usually microscopic
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| asexual life cycle | -fungi are classified by their asexual spores
-sporangiospores and conidospores
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| Sporangiospores | formed by successive cleavages within a sporangium (spore bearing sac)
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| Conidospores | free spores not enclosed by a spore bearing sac
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| superficial mycoses | fungi colonize the hair, skin, or nails and infect only the surface layers
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| subcutaneous mycoses | fungi colonize deeper layers of skin
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| systemic mycoses | fungal growth in internal organs of the body, such as lungs
-subclassified as primary or secondary infections
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| Locomotion of Protists | pseudopod
flagella
cilia
undulating membrane
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| pseudopod | false feet
serve as feeding structures
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| flagella | vary in number from one to several
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| cilia | distributed over the entire surface of the cell in characteristic patterns
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| life cycle of protists | Trophozoite
Cyst
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| Trophozoite | -motile and feeding stage
-requires ample food and moisture to remain active
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| Cyst | -dormant, resting stage
-important factor in spread of disease
cell wall (cuticle) is tough
-formed when conditions become unfavorable for growth and feeding
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| malaria | a protist disease caused by Plasmodium spp.
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| Plasmodium | -is a genus of unicellular eukaryotes that are obligate parasites of vertebrates and insects
-life cycle involves development of blood feeding insect host which then injects parasites into a vertebrate host
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| phylum platyhelminthes | all flatworms
-class cestoda (tape worms)
-class trematoda (flukes)
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| phylum Nematoda | roundworms, hookworms, pinworms
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| developmental stages of helminths | fertilized egg-environment
larval stage-intermediate host
adult stage-definitive host
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| intermediate (secondary) host | the host in which larval development occurs
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| Definitive (final) host | host in which adulthood and mating occur
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| classification of helminths | -shape
-size
-degree of development of organs
-presence of hooks, suckers, other special structures
-mode of reproduction
-kinds of hosts
-appearance of eggs and larvae
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| Vectors | animals that carry pathogens
-mechanical-carried outside the body
-biological-carried inside the body
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| disease vectors | 2 classes of arthropod
-arachnida
-insecta
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| Both flagella and cilia are found primarily in -algae -protozoa -fungi -both a and c | protozoa
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| Features of the nuclear envelope include -ribosomes -a double membrane structure -pores that allow communication with the cytoplasm b and c all of these | ribosomes
double membrane structure
pores that allow communication with the cytoplasm
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| The cell wall is found in which eukaryotes -fungi -algae -protozoa -a and b | fungi and algae
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| Yeasts are ____ fungi, and molds are ____ fungi. | unicellular, filamentous
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| Algae generally contain some type of -spore -chlorophyll -locomotor organelle -toxin | chlorophyll
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| Almost all protozoa have a -locomotor organelle -cyst stage -pellicle -trophozoite stage | trophozoite stage
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| All mature sporozoa are -parasitic -nonmotile -carried by vectors -both a and b | parasitic and nonmotile
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| parasitic helminths reproduce with -spores -eggs and sperm -mitosis -cysts -all of these | eggs and sperm
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| Mitochondria likely orginated from -archaea -invaginations of the cell membrane -bacteria -chloroplasts | bacteria
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| Most helminth infections -are localized to one site in the body -spread through major systems of the body -develop within the spleen -develop within the liver | are localized to one site in the body
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| Binary fission | prokaryotic cell division following enlargement of a cell to twice its minimum size
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| Generation time | time required for microbial cells to double in number
minutes to double-exponential growth
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| microbial growth curve | lag phase
log phase
stationary phase
death phase
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| lag phase | synthesize enzymes
when bacteria is in a media
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| log phase | rapid increase
most susceptible to antibiotics
metabolism at max
actively dividing
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| stationary phase | runs out of nutrients
population constant
wastes accumulate
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| death phase | death exceeds reproduction
no nutrients
wastes become toxic
some survive endospores
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| viable cell counts | spread plate w/serial dilution
pour plate w/serial dilution
most probable number count
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| methods that don't require incubation | microscopic (hemacytometer)
electronic
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| indirect methods when weren't not directly counting | turbidimetric (spectrophotometry)
metabolic activity
dry weight
genetic methods
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| phototroph vs chemotroph | -phototroph microbes that photosynthesize use light for energy and utilize inorganic components
-chemotroph are microbes that gain energy from chemical organic compounds
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| autotroph vs. heterotrophs | -autotrophs use CO2 (inorganic carbon) as their carbon source
converts it to food
primary producers
-heterotrophs require 1 or more organic molecules for their carbon source
feed directly on autotrophs
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| environmental factors affecting growth | temp
oxygen requirements
ph
osmotic pressure
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| temperature affecting growth | psychrophiles- adap[t to grow at very low temps
mesophiles-optimum growth at 20 to 40 degrees C
thermophiles-flourish at high temps
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| oxygen requirements affecting growth | obligate aerobe-essential has enzymes to detoxify
facultative anaerobe-capable of growth in absence of O2 but prefers
obligate anaerobe-O2 is deadly, can't detoxify
aerotolerant anaerobes-can survive and grow to a limited extent in presence of O2
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| pH requirements affecting growth | acidophiles-grow best at low ph <6
neutrophile-grow best between pH 6 to pH 8
alkalinophile-grow best at high pH >8
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| Osmotic pressure affecting growth | restricts organisms to certain environments
requires high levels of salt- halophiles
best of solute conc 3 to 12 %
halotolerant can tolerate solutes 1to 7 %
nonhalophiles need very low conc
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| symbiotic | organisms live in close nutritional relationships, required by 1 or more members
-mutualism/both benefit
-commensalism/other member not harmed
-parasitism/dependent and benefits, host harmed
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| nonsymbiotic | organisms are free living, relationships not required for survival
-synergism/members cooperate and share nutrients
-antagonism/some members are inhibited or destroyed by others
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| Biofilms | mixed communities of different kinds of bacteria and other microbes
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| Quorum sensing | cells are stimulated to release chemicals as the population grows to monitor its size
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| AHL (autoinducer homoserine lactone) | gram -
positive feedback
180 genes during reg metabolism
600 genes in high cell density
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| AIP (Autoinducing peptide) | gram +
some AIPs differ by amino acid
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| AI-2 (autoinducer 2) | cross species talk
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| The source of the necessary elements of life is -an organic environmental reservoir -the sun -rocks -the air | an inorganic environmental reservoir
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| An organism that can synthesize all its required organic components from CO2 using energy from the sun is -photoautotroph -photoheterotroph -chemoautotroph -chemoheterotroph | photoautotroph
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| Chemoautotrophs can survive on ______ alone. | minerals and CO2
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| Which of the following statements is true for ALL organisms -require organic nutrients -require inorganic nutrients -require growth factors -require oxygen gas | require inorganic nutrients
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| A pathogen would most accurately be described as a -parasite -commensal -saprobe -symbiont | parasite
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| Which of the following is true of passive transport -it requires a gradient -it uses the cell wall -it includes endocytosis -it only moves water | it requires a gradient
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| A cell exposed to a hypertonic environment will _____ by osmosis. | lose water
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| Psychrophiles would be expected to grow -in hot springs -on the human body -at refrigeration temps -at low pH | at refrigeration temps
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| Superoxide ion is toxic to strict anaerobes because they lack -catalase -peroxidase -dismutase -oxidase | dismutase
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| In a viable plate count, each ______ represents a _________ from the same population. | colony, cell
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| constitutive enzyme | always present in relatively constant amounts
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| regulated enzymes | production is turned on (induced) or turned off (repressed) in response to changes in concentration of substrate
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| repression | stops further synthesis of an enzyme somewhere along its pathway
response time is longer than for feedback inhibition
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| induction control | enzymes appear induced only when suitable substrates are present
inverse of enzyme repression
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| aerobic respiration | series of reactions that converts glucose to CO2 and allows the cell to recover significant amounts of energy
glycolysis, krebs cycle, and electron transport chain
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| anaerobic respiration | utilizes glycolysis, krebs cycle, and electron transport chain but final electron acceptor is NO3, SO4, or CO3 NOT O2
less efficient than aerobic
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| glycolysis | the universal pathway
glucose is phosphorylated, split in 2, and converted to pyruvic acid
2 ATPs
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| pyruvic acid | central metabolite for many biological processes
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| Krebs cycle or citric acid cycle | doesn't require O2
depends on by products of respiration to continue
-all reactions occur twice for each glucose molecule because 2 pyruvates are formed during glycolysis
-2 ATPs
acetyl coA
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| Electron Transport Chain | series of oxidations and reductions
receives electrons from NADH and FADH2
electrons are passed from one protein to the next
electron at the end is spent and given final acceptor as OXYGEN
-34 ATPs
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| Total yield from glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and electron transport | 38 ATPs
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| fermentation | utilized by every organism, to some extent , perferred method of making ATP by some
by itself it makes no ATP
oxygen is not required
yields 2 ATP from glycolysis
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| alcoholic fermentation | occurs mainly in yeast
converts pyruvic acid to ethanol
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| lipid catabolism | lipases- breaks apart fatty acids joined to glycerol
glycerol is then converted to dihydroxyacetone phosphate which can enter glycolysis
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| protein catabolism | proteases- break down proteins to their amino acid components
amino group removed through deamination
remaining carbon converted to the krebs cycle
decarboxylation is also possible
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| amphibolism | some metabolic pathways can be used in forward and reverse direction
increased efficiency
given molecule can serve multiple purposes to derive max benefit
both catabolism and anabolism
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| photosynthesis | light dependent reactions- proceed only in the presence of sunlight
light-independent-proceed regardless of lighting conditions
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| anabolism | the synthesis of complex molecules in living organisms from simpler ones together with the storage of energy
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| carbohydrate catabolism | amylase- break down starch into glucose
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| Catabolism is a form of metabolism in which ________ molecules are converted into _______ molecules | Large, small
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| enzyme | is heat and pH labile
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| An apoenzyme is where the _____ is located. -cofactor -coenzyme -redox reaction -active site | active site
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| To digest cellulose in its environment, a fungus produces a/an -endoenzyme -exoenzyme -catalase -polymerase | exoenzyme
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| Energy is carried from catabolic to anabolic reactions in the form of -ADP -high energy ATP bonds -coenzymes -inorganic phosphate | high energy ATP bonds
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| Many coenzymes -metals -vitamins -proteins -substrates | vitamins
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| A product or products of glycolysis is/are -ATP -H2O -CO2 -both a and b | ATP
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| Fermentation of a glucose molecule has the potential to produce a net number of ________ ATPs. | 2
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| Complete oxidation of glucose in aerobic respiration can yield a net output of _______ ATPs. | 38
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| ATP synthase complexes can generate ________ ATPs for each NADH that enters electron transport | 3
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