Blood
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| Blood: a fluid connective tissue composed of | Plasma :liquid portion
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| Erythrocytes | Red Blood Cells
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| Leukocytes | White Blood Cells
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| Hematocrit | Percent of blood volume that is RBCs
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| what is the percentage of RBC in Males | 47%
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| what is the percentage of RBC in Females | 42%
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| Physical Characteristics of blood | Sticky, opaque fluid
Color scarlet to dark red
pH 7.35–7.45
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| Tempature of blood and percentage of body weight ? | 38 C and 8 % of body weight
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| Average volume of blood in males and females ? | Males 5-6 L and Females 4-5 L
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| What are the functions of blood ? | Distribution of blood
O2 and nutrients to body cells
Metabolic wastes to the lungs and kidneys for elimination
Hormones from endocrine organs to target organs
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| What are blood regulations ? | Regulation of blood
Body temperature by absorbing and distributing heat
Normal pH using buffers
Adequate fluid volume in the circulatory system
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| What does blood protect ? | Protection against
Blood loss
Plasma proteins and platelets initiate clot formation
Infection
Antibodies
Complement proteins
WBCs defend against foreign invaders
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| What is 90% of water and its Proteins are mostly produced by the liver & are the most abundant solutes ( 8% by wt ) in the plasma. | Blood Plasma
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| What is the percentage of albumin in blood plasma ? | 60%
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| Blood plasma has _________ _________of metabolism—lactic acid, urea, creatinine | Nitrogenous by-products
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| Blood Plasma has ____________—glucose, carbohydrates, amino acids Electrolytes—Na+, K+, Ca2+, Cl–, HCO3– Respiratory gases—O2 and CO2 Hormones | Nutrients
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| Only _______are complete cells | White Blood Cells
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| _________have no nuclei or organelles | Red Blood Cells
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| __________are cell fragments | Platelets
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| Most blood cells originate in what and do not divide ? | Bone Marrow
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| What are biconcave discs, anucleate, essentially no organelles and Filled with hemoglobin (Hb) for gas transport | Erythrocytes
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| Erythrocytes contain the plasma membrane protein _______and other proteins,Which Provide flexibility to change shape as necessary. | spectrin
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| Erythrocytes are the major factor contributing to | blood viscosity
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| Structural characteristics contribute to gas transport Biconcave shape—huge surface area relative to volume >97% hemoglobin (not counting water) | Erythrocytes
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| What are the fuctions of Erythocytes ? | RBCs are dedicated to respiratory gas transport
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| Hemoglobin binds reversibly with what ? | Oxygen
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| What is the hemoglobin structure of Erythocytes ? | Protein globin: two alpha and two beta chains
Heme pigment bonded to each globin chain
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| Each Hb molecule can transport | four O2 and 1 billion RBC
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| O2 loading in the lungs Produces what ? | Oxyhemoglobin (Ruby red)
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| O2 unloading in the tissues produces what ? | deoxyhemoglobin or reduced hemoglobin (dark red)
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| CO2 loading in the tissues Produces _____________(carries 20% of CO2 in the blood) | carbaminohemoglobin
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| What is the process of blood cell formation and Occurs in red bone marrow of axial skeleton, girdles and proximal epiphyses of humerus and femur | Hematopoiesis
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| What gives rise to all formed elements Hormones and growth factors push the cell toward a specific pathway of blood cell development | Hemocytoblasts
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| red blood cell production is known as | Erythropoiesis
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| A hemocytoblast is transformed into a | proerythroblast
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| Proerythroblasts develop into early | early erythroblasts
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| Erythropoiesis phases in development | 1.Ribosome synthesis
2.Hemoglobin accumulation
3.Ejection of the nucleus and formation of reticulocytes
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| Too few RBCs leads to | tissue hypoxia
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| Too many RBCs increases | blood viscosity
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| Balance between RBC production and destruction depends on | Hormonal controls
Adequate supplies of iron, amino acids, and B vitamins
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| This substance is a direct stimulus for erythropoiesis Released by the kidneys in response to hypoxia ? | Erythropoietin
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| Causes of hypoxia | Hemorrhage or increased RBC destruction reduces RBC numbers
Insufficient hemoglobin (e.g., iron deficiency)
Reduced availability of O2 (e.g., high altitudes
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| Effects of EPO | More rapid maturation of committed bone marrow cells
Increased circulating reticulocyte count in 1–2 days
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| Testosterone also enhances EPO production, resulting in higher ____counts in males | RBC
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| Life span of erythocyctes : Old RBCs become fragile, and Hb begins to degenerate | 100–120 days
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| Heme and globin are | Separated
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| What is salvaged for reuse ? | Iron
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| Heme is degraded to yellow the pigment | bilirubin
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| the body in feces as | stercobilin
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| Globin is metabolized into | amino acids
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| Blood has abnormally low O2-carrying capacity and is accompanied by fatigue, paleness, shortness of breath, and chills is known as ? | Anemia
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| Deficiency of vitamin B12 Lack of intrinsic factor needed for absorption of B12 Treated by intramuscular injection of B12 or application of Nascobal | Pernicious anemia
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| Absent or faulty globin chain RBCs are thin, delicate, and deficient in hemoglobin | Thalassemias
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| Defective gene codes for abnormal hemoglobin (HbS) Causes RBCs to become sickle shaped in low-oxygen situations | Sickle-cell anemia
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| excess of RBCs that increase blood viscosity | Polycythemia
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| Results from: Polycythemia vera—bone marrow cancer Secondary polycythemia—when less O2 is available (high altitude) or when EPO production increases Blood doping | Polycythemia
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| What makes up <1% of total blood volume Can leave capillaries via diapedesis Move through tissue spaces by ameboid motion and positive chemotaxis | Leukocytes
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| what has WBC count over 11,000/mm3 Normal response to bacterial or viral invasion | Leukocytosis
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| What are neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils | Granulocytes
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| what has the most numerous WBCs Polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs) Fine granules take up both acidic and basic dyes Give the cytoplasm a lilac color Granules contain hydrolytic enzymes or defensins Very phagocytic—“bacteria slayers” | neutrophils
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| What is Red-staining, bilobed nuclei Red to crimson (acidophilic) coarse, lysosome-like granules Digest parasitic worms that are too large to be phagocytized | eosinophils
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| Rarest WBCs Large, purplish-black (basophilic) granules contain histamine | Basophils
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| an inflammatory chemical that acts as a vasodilator and attracts other WBCs to inflamed sites | Histamine
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| lymphocytes and monocytes Lack visible cytoplasmic granules Have spherical or kidney-shaped nuclei | Agranulocytes
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| Large, dark-purple, circular nuclei with a thin rim of blue cytoplasm Mostly in lymphoid tissue; few circulate in the blood Crucial to immunity | Lymphocytes
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| act against virus-infected cells and tumor cells | T-Cells
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| give rise to plasma cells, which produce antibodies | B-Cells
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| The largest leukocytes Abundant pale-blue cytoplasm Dark purple-staining, U- or kidney-shaped nuclei | Monocyte
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| Leave circulation, enter tissues, and differentiate into macrophages | Monocytes
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| Actively ________________; crucial against viruses, intracellular bacterial parasites, and chronic infections | phagocytic cells
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| Monocytes activate ____________to mount an immune response | lymphocytes
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| The Production of WBCs Stimulated by chemical messengers from bone marrow and mature WBCs | Leukopoiesis
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| Abnormally low WBC count—drug induced | Leukopenia
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| Bone marrow totally occupied with cancerous leukocytes Immature nonfunctional WBCs in the bloodstream Death caused by internal hemorrhage and overwhelming infections | Leukemia
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| Small fragments of megakaryocytes Formation is regulated by thrombopoietin | Platelets
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| Form a temporary platelet plug that helps seal breaks in blood vessels Circulating platelets are kept inactive and mobile by NO and prostacyclin from endothelial cells of blood vessels | Platelets
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| Infectious mononucleosis: highly contagious viral disease. Etiology Epstein-Barr virus. The hallmark of this disease is excessive numbers of agranulocytes. Symptoms include fatigue, chronic sore throat, low-grade fever, general malaise. | Mono
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| Fast series of reactions for stoppage of bleeding | 1.Vascular spasm
2.Platelet plug formation
3.Coagulation (blood clotting)
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| Platelet Plug Formation: Positive Feedback Cycle | At site of blood vessel injury, platelets
Stick to exposed collagen fibers with the help of von Willebrand factor, a plasma protein
Swell, become spiked and sticky, and release chemical messengers
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| Normally platelets do not stick together or to | endothelial lining.
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| Intact endothelial lining releases __________preventing platelet aggregation. (prostacyclin). | Chemicals
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| When endothelial lining is damaged, ___________ are exposed and platelet stick to this tenaciously | collagen fibers
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| All blood clotting factors normally circulate in the blood in the | inactive form until mobilized
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| A set of reactions in which blood is transformed from a liquid to a gel | Coagulation
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| Coagulation reinforces the platelet plug with | fibrin threads
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| what are the three phases of coagulation | 1.Prothrombin activator is formed (intrinsic and extrinsic pathways)
2.Prothrombin is converted into thrombin
3.Thrombin catalyzes the soluble fibrinogen into insoluble fibrin mesh.
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| Is triggered by negatively charged surfaces (activated platelets, collagen, glass) Uses factors present within the blood (intrinsic) | Intrinsic pathway
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| Is triggered by exposure to tissue factor (TF) or factor III (an extrinsic factor) Bypasses several steps of the intrinsic pathway, so is faster | Extrinsic pathway
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| Prothrombin activator catalyzes the transformation of prothrombin to the active enzyme | thrombin
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| Thrombin converts fibrinogen to | fibrin
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| Actin and myosin in platelets contract within | 30–60 minutes
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| stimulates division of smooth muscle cells and fibroblasts to rebuild blood vessel wall | Platelet-derived growth factor
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| stimulates endothelial cells to multiply and restore the endothelial lining | Vascular endothelial growth factor
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| Begins within two days Plasminogen in a clot is converted to plasmin by tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), factor XII and thrombin |
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| Plasmin is a | fibrin-digesting enzyme
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| clot that develops and persists in an unbroken blood vessel May block circulation, leading to tissue death | Thrombus
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| a thrombus freely floating in the blood stream | Embolus
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| deficient number of circulating platelets Petechiae appear due to spontaneous, widespread hemorrhage Due to suppression or destruction of bone marrow (e.g., malignancy, radiation) | Thrombocytopenia
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| Humans have ____ varieties of naturally occurring RBC antigens | 30
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| When serum containing anti-A or anti-B agglutinins (antibodies) is added to blood, agglutination will occur between the agglutinin and the corresponding | agglutinogens(antigens)
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