Bio(Ch.3)
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| Elementary Chemistry | The two main factors that determine whether or not matter can undergo change are the properties of matter and the availability of energy
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| Matter | Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space
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| Composition of matter | All matter, both living and nonliving, is composed of elements, compounds, and mixtures
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| Elements | ~ A substance that cannot be changed into simpler substances by ordinary means is called an element
~ Living things are composed mainly of the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen
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| Compounds | ~ A combination of chemical elements in definite proportions by masses called a compound
~ A chemical formula shows the kind of elements in a compound and the proportions of each element by mass
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| Mixtures | ~ The components of a mixture of are not fixed or chemically combined.
~ Thus, the mixture has no chemical formula
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| Solution | A mixture in which one substance dissolves in another is called a solution
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| Solute | The substance that dissolves is called a solute
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| Solvent | The substance in which the solute dissolves is called a solvent
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| Change in matter | Both the phase and the composition of matter may change under different conditions
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| Change in phase | ~ At a given temperature and pressure, all matter exist in one of the three phases -- solid, liquid, or gas
~ When the temperature or pressure changes, matter may undergo a change in phase
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| Physical change | When matter changes, a physical change takes place, in which matter retains it's original composition
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| Change in composition | When matter undergoes a change in composition, a chemical change takes place
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| Chemical change | ~ A chemical change occurs when complex substances are broken down into simpler substances or vice versa
~ As a result of chemical change, new substances, called products are formed
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| Changes in property | When matter undergoes change its properties(characteristics) also change
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| Physical properties | All matter possesses physical properties such as phase, color, odor, and solubility
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| Chemical properties | Matter possesses chemical properties such as the ability to burn or to support burning
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| Energy | Energy is the ability to work
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| Potential energy | Potential energy is energy matter possesses, or stores, because of position or condition
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| Kinetic energy | Kinetic energy is the energy of motion
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| Reactants | Reactants are the reacting substances in a chemical reaction
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| Activation energy | Chemical reactions usually require energy to occur; this energy is called activation energy, which causes molecules of the reactants to move faster, thus increasing the chance of molecular collision
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| Calorie | A calorie is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a gram of water one degree Celsius
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| Elements and Atoms | Smallest particle of a particular element that can't combine with other elements is called an atom
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| Atomic nucleus | Each nucleus of each kind of atom contains protons and neutrons
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| Protons | Each proton has a positive electrical charge
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| Neutrons | A neutron has no electrical charge
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| Electrons | Electrons are negatively charged particles located outside of the nucleus
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| Shells/ Energy levels | Electrons are arranged in patterns, called shells, or energy levels, are identified by certain letters
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| K Shell | The K shell is the closest shell to the nucleus and can hold a maximum of two electrons
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| L Shell | The L shell is the second closest shell to the nucleus and can hold a maximum of eight electrons
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| M Shell | The M shell is the third closest shell to the nucleus and can hold a maximum of 18 electrons
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| Chemical activity | The chemical activity of elements depends upon (a) the number of arrangement of electrons and their atoms, and (b) the energy levels the electrons reach as a result of gaining or losing energy
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| Atomic mass | ~ The combined mass of the protons and neutrons in an atom's nucleus is called the atomic mass
~ Atomic mass is designated by placing the combined number of protons and neutrons to the upper left of the chemical symbol of an element
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| Atomic number | The number of protons, is designated by placing the appropriate number to the lower left of the element's symbol
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| Isotopes | An atom of an element that does not have the same mass of the same element is called an isotope
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| Radioactive isotopes | ~ Many isotopes are radioactive
~ They emit radiations such as alpha rays(helium nuclei), beta rays(high-speed electrons), and gamma rays(which are similar to x-rays)
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| Helpful radioactive isotopes | Radioactive isotopes of hydrogen, carbon, phosphorus, iodine, and cobalt are among many radioactive isotopes used in research and medicine
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| Types of compounds | All compounds are classified as either inorganic or organic
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| Inorganic compounds | An inorganic compound does not contain the elements carbon
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| Organic compounds | An organic compound always contains carbon in the complex combinations with hydrogen, oxygen, and other elements
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| Chemical bonds | ~ The attractive force that binds atoms in a compound is called a chemical bonds
~ The two general types of chemical bond are ionic and covalent
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| Ionic bonds | Ions that attracts each other and unite, forming an electrostatic bond
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| Covalent bonds | A bond formed when atoms share electrons
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| Molecule | Two or more atoms joined by covalent bonds
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| Valence Electrons | The outer most energy level
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| Octet | An atom that has eight electrons
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| Chemical reaction | When a chemical reaction occurs, new bonds are formed and old bonds are broken
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| Exothermic reaction | Chemical reactions
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| Acids | ~ A water solution of a substance that ionizes into positively charged hydrogen ions
~ taste sour and change the color of blue litmus(an indicator) to red
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| Bases | ~ A water solution of a substance that ionizes into negatively charged hydroxide ions
~ taste bitter and feel slippery, and you change the color of red litmus to blue
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| Neutralization | ~ The reaction between an acid and a base that yields a salt and water
~ The equations show that a salt is a compound with a positive ion and a negative ion
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| Mineral salts | Inorganic salts that's are found independently in rocks and minerals
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| pH scale | A pH scale is used to indicate the ° of acidity(Concentration of hydrogen ions) or the degree of alkalinity (concentration of hydroxide ions) of a particular solution
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| Dehydration synthesis reaction | Small molecules combined to form larger and more complex molecules in a dehydration synthesis reaction
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| Hydrolysis | Large complex molecules are broken down to smaller ones with the aid of hydrolysis molecules
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| Replacement reaction | One or more elements and a compound replace one or more elements in another compound during a replacement reaction
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| Factors affecting the rate of chemical reactions | The rate of chemical reaction depends upon the nature and concentrations of the reactants, sizes of reacting particles, temperature, and the presence of catalysts
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| Nature of reactants | Different substances react at different rates
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| Concentration of reactants | Chemical reaction occurs because of delusions between the reactant molecules thus, increasing the quality, or concentration, of reactants and a given reaction increases the rate of reaction
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| Size of reactant particles | The smallest sizes of reacting particles the more rapid the reaction is
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| Temperature | And in temperature usually increases the rate of the reaction...that is because additionally causes the reactants molecules to move faster...rapid motion increases a number of collisions between the reacting molecules
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| Catalysts | A substance that speeds up the rate of reaction without being changed itself is called a catalyst
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| Enzymes | Organic catalyst found in living things
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| Biochemistry |
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| Carbohydrates | Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The ratio of H atoms to O atoms in carbohydrates is 2:1
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| Single sugars (monosaccharides) | Cannot be broken down into a simpler sugar
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| Isomers | Compounds that have the same molecular formula (composition) but different structural formulas
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| Glucose (dextrose or grape sugar) | A very important single sugar in organisms because it is easily used in exothermic reactions
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| Pentose | Five-carbon sugars; examples include deoxyribose and ribose
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| Double sugars (disaccharides) | Consists of two single sugars joined by dehydration synthesis
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| Common double sugars | Include sucrose(table sugar), maltose(found in many seeds), and lactose(found in milk)
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| Multiple sugars (polysaccharides) | A complex molecule formed by joining of hundreds of glucose molecules.
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| Examples of multiple sugars | Starch, glycogen, and cellulose
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| Glycogen and Cellulose | A storage form of glucose found in the liver, and cellulose makes up the cells of plant cells
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| Proteins | Enormous molecules composed of the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur
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| Amino Acids | An organic acid containing the amino group(NH2) and the carboxyl, or acid, group (COOH)
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| Peptide bond | Formed between amino acids after water comes
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