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Bio(Ch.3)
| Elementary Chemistry | The two main factors that determine whether or not matter can undergo change are the properties of matter and the availability of energy |
| Matter | Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space |
| Composition of matter | All matter, both living and nonliving, is composed of elements, compounds, and mixtures |
| Elements | ~ A substance that cannot be changed into simpler substances by ordinary means is called an element ~ Living things are composed mainly of the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen |
| Compounds | ~ A combination of chemical elements in definite proportions by masses called a compound ~ A chemical formula shows the kind of elements in a compound and the proportions of each element by mass |
| Mixtures | ~ The components of a mixture of are not fixed or chemically combined. ~ Thus, the mixture has no chemical formula |
| Solution | A mixture in which one substance dissolves in another is called a solution |
| Solute | The substance that dissolves is called a solute |
| Solvent | The substance in which the solute dissolves is called a solvent |
| Change in matter | Both the phase and the composition of matter may change under different conditions |
| Change in phase | ~ At a given temperature and pressure, all matter exist in one of the three phases -- solid, liquid, or gas ~ When the temperature or pressure changes, matter may undergo a change in phase |
| Physical change | When matter changes, a physical change takes place, in which matter retains it's original composition |
| Change in composition | When matter undergoes a change in composition, a chemical change takes place |
| Chemical change | ~ A chemical change occurs when complex substances are broken down into simpler substances or vice versa ~ As a result of chemical change, new substances, called products are formed |
| Changes in property | When matter undergoes change its properties(characteristics) also change |
| Physical properties | All matter possesses physical properties such as phase, color, odor, and solubility |
| Chemical properties | Matter possesses chemical properties such as the ability to burn or to support burning |
| Energy | Energy is the ability to work |
| Potential energy | Potential energy is energy matter possesses, or stores, because of position or condition |
| Kinetic energy | Kinetic energy is the energy of motion |
| Reactants | Reactants are the reacting substances in a chemical reaction |
| Activation energy | Chemical reactions usually require energy to occur; this energy is called activation energy, which causes molecules of the reactants to move faster, thus increasing the chance of molecular collision |
| Calorie | A calorie is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a gram of water one degree Celsius |
| Elements and Atoms | Smallest particle of a particular element that can't combine with other elements is called an atom |
| Atomic nucleus | Each nucleus of each kind of atom contains protons and neutrons |
| Protons | Each proton has a positive electrical charge |
| Neutrons | A neutron has no electrical charge |
| Electrons | Electrons are negatively charged particles located outside of the nucleus |
| Shells/ Energy levels | Electrons are arranged in patterns, called shells, or energy levels, are identified by certain letters |
| K Shell | The K shell is the closest shell to the nucleus and can hold a maximum of two electrons |
| L Shell | The L shell is the second closest shell to the nucleus and can hold a maximum of eight electrons |
| M Shell | The M shell is the third closest shell to the nucleus and can hold a maximum of 18 electrons |
| Chemical activity | The chemical activity of elements depends upon (a) the number of arrangement of electrons and their atoms, and (b) the energy levels the electrons reach as a result of gaining or losing energy |
| Atomic mass | ~ The combined mass of the protons and neutrons in an atom's nucleus is called the atomic mass ~ Atomic mass is designated by placing the combined number of protons and neutrons to the upper left of the chemical symbol of an element |
| Atomic number | The number of protons, is designated by placing the appropriate number to the lower left of the element's symbol |
| Isotopes | An atom of an element that does not have the same mass of the same element is called an isotope |
| Radioactive isotopes | ~ Many isotopes are radioactive ~ They emit radiations such as alpha rays(helium nuclei), beta rays(high-speed electrons), and gamma rays(which are similar to x-rays) |
| Helpful radioactive isotopes | Radioactive isotopes of hydrogen, carbon, phosphorus, iodine, and cobalt are among many radioactive isotopes used in research and medicine |
| Types of compounds | All compounds are classified as either inorganic or organic |
| Inorganic compounds | An inorganic compound does not contain the elements carbon |
| Organic compounds | An organic compound always contains carbon in the complex combinations with hydrogen, oxygen, and other elements |
| Chemical bonds | ~ The attractive force that binds atoms in a compound is called a chemical bonds ~ The two general types of chemical bond are ionic and covalent |
| Ionic bonds | Ions that attracts each other and unite, forming an electrostatic bond |
| Covalent bonds | A bond formed when atoms share electrons |
| Molecule | Two or more atoms joined by covalent bonds |
| Valence Electrons | The outer most energy level |
| Octet | An atom that has eight electrons |
| Chemical reaction | When a chemical reaction occurs, new bonds are formed and old bonds are broken |
| Exothermic reaction | Chemical reactions |
| Acids | ~ A water solution of a substance that ionizes into positively charged hydrogen ions ~ taste sour and change the color of blue litmus(an indicator) to red |
| Bases | ~ A water solution of a substance that ionizes into negatively charged hydroxide ions ~ taste bitter and feel slippery, and you change the color of red litmus to blue |
| Neutralization | ~ The reaction between an acid and a base that yields a salt and water ~ The equations show that a salt is a compound with a positive ion and a negative ion |
| Mineral salts | Inorganic salts that's are found independently in rocks and minerals |
| pH scale | A pH scale is used to indicate the ° of acidity(Concentration of hydrogen ions) or the degree of alkalinity (concentration of hydroxide ions) of a particular solution |
| Dehydration synthesis reaction | Small molecules combined to form larger and more complex molecules in a dehydration synthesis reaction |
| Hydrolysis | Large complex molecules are broken down to smaller ones with the aid of hydrolysis molecules |
| Replacement reaction | One or more elements and a compound replace one or more elements in another compound during a replacement reaction |
| Factors affecting the rate of chemical reactions | The rate of chemical reaction depends upon the nature and concentrations of the reactants, sizes of reacting particles, temperature, and the presence of catalysts |
| Nature of reactants | Different substances react at different rates |
| Concentration of reactants | Chemical reaction occurs because of delusions between the reactant molecules thus, increasing the quality, or concentration, of reactants and a given reaction increases the rate of reaction |
| Size of reactant particles | The smallest sizes of reacting particles the more rapid the reaction is |
| Temperature | And in temperature usually increases the rate of the reaction...that is because additionally causes the reactants molecules to move faster...rapid motion increases a number of collisions between the reacting molecules |
| Catalysts | A substance that speeds up the rate of reaction without being changed itself is called a catalyst |
| Enzymes | Organic catalyst found in living things |
| Biochemistry | |
| Carbohydrates | Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The ratio of H atoms to O atoms in carbohydrates is 2:1 |
| Single sugars (monosaccharides) | Cannot be broken down into a simpler sugar |
| Isomers | Compounds that have the same molecular formula (composition) but different structural formulas |
| Glucose (dextrose or grape sugar) | A very important single sugar in organisms because it is easily used in exothermic reactions |
| Pentose | Five-carbon sugars; examples include deoxyribose and ribose |
| Double sugars (disaccharides) | Consists of two single sugars joined by dehydration synthesis |
| Common double sugars | Include sucrose(table sugar), maltose(found in many seeds), and lactose(found in milk) |
| Multiple sugars (polysaccharides) | A complex molecule formed by joining of hundreds of glucose molecules. |
| Examples of multiple sugars | Starch, glycogen, and cellulose |
| Glycogen and Cellulose | A storage form of glucose found in the liver, and cellulose makes up the cells of plant cells |
| Proteins | Enormous molecules composed of the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur |
| Amino Acids | An organic acid containing the amino group(NH2) and the carboxyl, or acid, group (COOH) |
| Peptide bond | Formed between amino acids after water comes |
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