Surface Waters
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Marine Waters | 96.5% of Earth's water; 1.351 billion km of global water supply
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Seawater | Average salinity: 35ppt (35 g/kg); varies slightly depending on pressure, temperature and location
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Frozen Occurences | Ice Caps
Ice Sheets
Polar Ice Caps
Glaciers
Permafrost
Snow & Sleet
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Frozen Waters | 1.74% of water on Earth is currently in the solid state, which accounts for 69.5% of all fresh water resources on Earth (freeing water pushes out any salt)
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Stored Water | The amount of water stored in the solid state has changed drastically over geologic time:
Pleistocene Glacial Maxima
Snowball Earth
Cretaceous epicontinental flooding
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Surficial Ice Deposits | Ice Caps, Ice Sheets, Polar Ice Caps and Glaciers
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Ice Caps | Cover an area <50,000km
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Ice Sheets | Cover an area >50,000km
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Polar Ice Caps | No size limitation, but must be located at very high latitudes
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Glaciers | Large, slow-moving mass of ice
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Permafrost | (Subsurface Ice Deposits) soil that remains below the freezing point for more than two years, where water remains in a solid state; persists in high latitude regions
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Surface Waters | Lakes, Soil, Marshes, Rivers, Plants, Animals; 0.01% of total water - available for use; 0.4% of fresh water sources
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Runoff | Overland Flow
Streams
Rivers
Lakes
Deltas
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Evaporation | Change from liquid to gas phase of water as a result of heating (sublimation: solid to gaseous phase)
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Transpiration | The evaporation of water via plants the exposed aerially (10% of atmospheric water vapor)
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Precipitation | The condensation of water vapor into a liquid (rain) or solid state (snow/hail)
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Water Residence Time | How long water stays in a certain reservoir or system
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Biospheric | 1 week
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Atmospheric | 1-5 weeks
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River | 2 weeks
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Streams | 1-10 years
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Lakes | 10 years
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Soil | 2 weeks
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Ice Caps/Glaciers | 1000 years
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Oceans/Seas | 4000 years
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Groundwater | 2 weeks-10,000 years
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Running Water | Water flows down gradient in response to gravity; water attempts to reach the lowest energy state possible
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Potential Energy | Of the water is related to the elevation at which the water occurs
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Kinetic Energy | Of the water is related to the motion of the water
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Sheet Flow | Water flows down gradient over flat gentle slopes; water flow forms a continuous film across land surface
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Channel Flow | Water flow is a confined to a linear trough-like depressions
Includes: Rills, Gullies, Brooks, Creeks, Streams, Rivers
Classification is based on size and is subjection
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Fluid Flow | Flow behavior depends on the amount of energy in the system; if the infiltration rate into the ground is exceeded by precipitation rate, then surface flow will occur
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Laminar Flow | Flow is constant in one direction; little or no mixing of fluid as it is transported down gradient; parallel line flow of path
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Turbulent Flow | Complex flow paths such that water can be moving in any direction at any instant in time, but as a whole fluid move down gradient; extensive mixing of fluid; Inter
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Turbulence | Created through the irregularities in the channel or bed and the velocity of the water
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Gradient | Slope of the channel bed as drop in elevation over a given distance; change in vertical distance/horizontal distance; generally steeper in upstream direction than in downstream direction; higher the gradient the greater the potential energy in the system
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Velocity | Speed at which fluid is moving; V= distance travelled/time required to travel; Varies across channel width and depth due to resistance (friction) b/w fluid walls/bed
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Velocity Increases | Due to fluid acceleration, channel shape/composition, and the joining of multiple channels, thus increasing total volume of fluid
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Discharge | Volume of fluid to be transported; D=V of fluid X the cross sectional area of the fluid in the channel; Increases down gradient as multiple channels converge
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Dissolved Load | Solution of rock and transport of ions
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Bed Load | (Solid load) Larger material is transported by traction and saltation
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Suspended Load | (Solid load) Small material "float" during transport
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Abrasion | (Solid load) Weathering occurs through the physical impact of solid load with the channel walls and floor
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Hydraulic Abrasion | (Solid load) Physical weathering due to friction between fluid and rock
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Overland Flow | Flow produced when the ground becomes saturated or when the rate of rainfall exceed infiltration rates
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Overland Flow Commonly Occurs: | Arid Regions, Urban areas, Deforested Regions
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Braided Channels | Intricate network of sand/gravel bars and channels
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Bars | Deposited primarily as bed-load; deposited during intense flow, but divide channel during normal flow
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Braided Channels Occur: | In regions where sediment supply exceeds transport capacity; Common in arid, semiarid and arctic regions
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Meandering Channels | Single channels that broadly curve along their flow path
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Cut Banks | Regions of faster water flow on outer edge of meanders where erosion dominates
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Point Bars | Regions of slower water flow on inner edge of meanders where deposition dominates
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Oxbow Lakes | Abandoned meanders that were cut off from main channel
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Floodplain Deposits | Sedimentation that occurs when the fluid capacity of the channel is exceed, primarily during floods
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Fluid | Velocity decreases as it exceeds channel capacity; spreads out and drops its solid load as velocity decreases
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Natural levees | Form at edge of channel where coarse grained sediments drop out as velocity decreases rapidly
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Deltas | Form as channels reach large bodies of water, primarily oceans; sediments are deposited as fluid velocity of decreases
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Progradation | Occurs as sediments build outward through distributary channels
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Delta Types: | Stream Dominated
Wave Dominated
Tide Dominated
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Alluvial Fans | Similar features to deltas that develop on land that primarily form in arid regions
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Alluvial Fan Channel Flow | Channelized flow in high gradient regions rapidly spreads out and decrease velocity as mountain slopes decrease
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Alluvial Fan Deposits | Deposits are usually loose and unstable because of limited vegetation
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Drainage Systems | Region of land over which surface waters drain to a central point during a precipitation event
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Drainage Basins | Divides (topographic highs) divide drainage basins; range in size from local regions to entire continents
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Drainage Patters | Dendritic
Rectangular
Trellis
Radial
Deranged
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Base Level | The lowest level to which any channel can erode; control the erosion and deposition by changing hydrologic gradient
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Ultimate Base level | Sea level; Ultimate base levels shifts with changes in sea level
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Basel Level Shifting | Can shift as:
Resistant beds are breached
Sedimentation occurs
Subsidence
Changes in ultimate base levels
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Graded Profiles | Develop as gradient is smoothed over time
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Sea Level Lowstand | Rivers cut down through the rock to reach the new, lower base level, creating incised valleys
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Sea Level Highstand | Rivers fill up the valleys with sediment and try to reach the new, higher base level, creating flat floodplains
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Base level rise and fall | Results in a complex sequence of sediments being deposited on the continental shelf and in fluvial systems
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Radial (Early) Stage | Downcutting occurs when the stream has excess energy. Deep, narrow, v-shaped valleys form
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Intermediate Stage | Lateral erosion widens valleys often with the assistance of mass wasting; Headward erosion extends valley length and often capture channels (stream piracy); valley broaden
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Aerial Flooding | When more water is supplied than can either run off or infiltrate into the ground in areas not connected to a stream channel;
Caused by:
Shallow water tables
Intense rain or snow melt
Impermeable Surfaces
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Riverine (channel) flooding | When more water is supplied than the river can hold; when a river overtakes its banks;
Caused by:
Excess rain upstream
Stream blockage downstream
Excess precipitation and intense runoff
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Flash floods | Rapid flooding of of low lying areas over less than 6 hours
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Controlling floods | Artificial impoundments are often constructed to prevent flooding:
Levees, Dams, Floodways, floodwalls, reforestation
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Advanced (Late) Stage | Meander streams develop with well-developed stream terraces
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