Biology
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| Potts Fracture | Fracture of the ankle joint with the lower parts of the fibula and tibia being broken.
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| Colles Fracture | Fracture of the radius about 1inch above wrist.
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| Comminuted Fracture | Bone fragments into 3 or more pieces.
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| Spiral Fracture | Break occurs due to excessive twisting forces.
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| Depressed Fracture | Bone portion pushed inward.
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| Compression Fracture | Bone is crushed.
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| Epiphyseal Fracture | Epiphysis seperates from diaphysis along epiphyseal plate.
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| Greenstick Fracture | Bone breaks incompletely-one side of shaft breaks.
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| Vertebral Column | 26 Bones 5 Regions
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| Cervical | 7 bones in neck
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| Thoracic | 12 bones
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| Lumbar | 5 bones
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| Sacral | 1 bone
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| Coccygeal | 1 bone
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| Pectoral Girdle | Attaches arms to axial skeleton, composed of clavicle and scapula.
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| Pelvic Girdle | Pelvis is formed from the sacrum, coccyx, and coxal bones. Coxal bones formed from fushion of ilium, pubis, and ischium. Coxal bones have socket called acetabulum.
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| Parts of long bone | Articular Cartilage, Epiphyseal Line, Spongy Bone (Red bone marrow), Medullary Cavity, Nutrient Forearm, Edosteum, Periosteum.
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| Periosteum Layers |
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| Fibrous Layer | Outermost layer, dense irregular connective tissue.
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| Osteogenic Layer | Innermost layer, made of osteoblasts and osteoclasts.
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| Sharpey's Fibers | Collagen fibers which extend from the fibrous layer to bone matrix to secure the periosteum.
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| Long Bone | Longer than they are wide. ex: humurus, femur, fibula, tibia
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| Short Bone | Roughly cube shaped. ex: scaphoid, lunate, calcaneus, navicular.
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| Vitamins In Bone |
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| Vitamin D | Has hormone calcitriol, promotes removal of calcium.
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| Vitamin C | Maintains bone matrix.
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| Vitamin A | Controls osteoblasts and osteoclasts activity.
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| Vitamin B12 | Aids in osteoblast activity.
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| Bone Repair |
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| Fracture Hematoma | Broken blood vessels form clot.
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| Phagocytes and osteoclasts | Remove traumatized tissue.
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| Procallus | Blood capillaries organize the hematoms into granulation tissue.
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| Fibroblasts form periosteum and osteoprogenator cells | Produce Collagen Fibers.
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| Soft Callus | Chondroblasts form and produce fibrocartilage (fibrocartilagenous cells).
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| Hard Callus | Fibrocartilage is converted to spongy bone.
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| Remodeling of spongy bone to compact bone. |
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| Sutures |
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| Coronal Suture | Behind Forehead
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| Lamboidal Suture | Above Occipital
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| Squamosal Suture | Above Ear
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| Sagittal Suture | Center of Head
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| Types of Movement |
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| Flexion | Bending, Decreases angle of joint.
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| Extension | Increases angle of joint, hyperextension.
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| Abduction | Movement of limb away from the midline or median plane of the body.
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| Adduction | Movement of limb toward body.
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| Rotation | Turning of a bone along its own axis.
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| Different Joints |
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| Fibrous Joint | No joint activity is present, most are immoveable.
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| Cartilaginous Joint | Lack a joint cavity, not highly moveable.
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| Synovial Joint | Fluid-containing joint cavity, freely moveable joints.
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| Synarthrosis | Immoveable
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| Suture | Occurs in-between bones of skull. Interlock with short connective tissue. Closed sutures are called synostoses.
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| Gomphosis | Peg in socket
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| Synchondrosis | Bar or plate of hyaline cartilage uniting bone. Only moves during growth.
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| Amphiarthrosis | Slightly moveable
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| Syndesmosis | Bones connected by ligaments, cords or bands of fibrous tissue. Amount of movement depends on length of connecting tissue.
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| Symphysis | When articular surfaces of the bones are covered with articular cartilage (hyaline). Acts as shock absorber. Designed for strength with flexibility.
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| Diarthrosis | Freely moveable
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| Gliding Joint | Usually flat articulation, allow short gliding movements.
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| Hinge Joint | One concave surface and one convex, permits flexion and extension only.
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| Pivot Joint | Allows for rotation, atlas bone, head side to side to say "No".
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| Cartilage Tears | Mostly involve meniscus from compression and stress.
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| Arthritis | Pain, stiffness and swelling of joint, inflammatory disorder, synovial membrane thickens and fluid production decreases causing friction and pain.
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| Osteoarthritis | Most common, chronic and degenerative, wear and tear arthritis, most prevalent in elders, more women than men, osteophytes.
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| Rheumatoid Arthritis | Chronic inflammatory disorder, can occur at any age, more in women than men, joint tenderness and stiffness, autoimmune disease.
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| Gouty Arthritis | Urate crystals caused by uric acid are deposited in the soft tissues of joints, causes painful attack of gout, more men than women.
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| Lyme Disease | Inflammatory disease caused by spirochete bacteria transmitted by bites of ticks that live on mice and deer.
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| Membranes |
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| Synovial Membrane | Membrane composed of areolar tissue with elastic fibers and adipose tissue, used to line cavities of moveable joints.
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| Bursa | Sac usually with lubricating fluid.
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| Articular synovial membranes | Freely moving articulations, ligaments, and bursa.
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| Tendon Sheaths | Surrounds tendon.
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| Epithelial Membrane | Membrane composed of epithelium and connective tissue used to line a surface.
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| Mucous Membranes | Lines body cavities that open to exterior, epithelial sheet is directly under a layer of loose connective tissue. This is called Laminae Propria.
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| Serous Membranes | Moist membranes found in closed ventral body cavity, Parietal portion, visceral portion, results in thin clear serous fluid that lubricates surfaces of parietal and visceral layers, Pericardium, Pleura, Peritoneum.
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| SKIN |
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| Epidermis | What we see with our eyes, composed of stratified squamous epithelium.
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| Epidermis Layers |
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| Stratum Corneum (horney layer) | 20-30 rows dead cells, protect skin against abrasion and penetration, glycolipids between its cells barely waterproofs this layer.
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| Stratum Lucidum (clear layer) | Thin translucent band just above stratum granulosum, 2-3 rows of clear, flat, dead keratinocytes.
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| Stratum Granulosum (granular layer) | 3-5 cell layers, produce keratohyalin, lamellated granules.
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| Stratum Spinosum (spiny layer) | Several cell layers thick, mostly tension-resisting bundles of prekeratin filaments, polyhedral shaped keratinocytes with spiny projections (8-10 rows), langerhan cells and processes of melanocytes.
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| Stratum Basale | Deepest epidermal layer, mostly stem cells which divide to produce keratinocytes, melanocytes, and merklel cells.
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| Dermis | 2nd major skin region, strong, flexible connective tissue, binds entire body together, Cells: fibroblasts, macrophages, white blood cells, matrix with collagen, elastic and reticular fibers.
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| 3 Layers of the Dermis |
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| Papillary Layer | Areolar tissue with many blood vessels and elastic fibers. Dermal papillae Indentations into epithelium. Free nerve endings, meisseners corpuscles.
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| Reticular Layer | Thicker 2nd layer, dense irregular connective tissue with collagen, elastic and reticular fibers, fibers allow for extensibility and elasticity, Krause corpuscles, ruffini corpuscles, collagen fibers align in a direction called lines of cleavage.
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| Hypodermis (superficial fascia) | The subcutaneous layer, attaches to its underlying tissues, contains pacinian corpuscles.
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| Skin Colors |
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| Melanin in Epidermis | Pigment that makes up color of skin, produced in cells called melanocytes.
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| Carotene in Dermis | Yellow-Orange pigment, accumulates in stratum corneum and hypodermis; most evident in thick skin.
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| Blood in capillaries of dermis | Reddish, pass blood from arteries to veins.
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| Albinism | An inherited condition, a lack of pigment that gives color to skin, eyes, and hair.
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| Cyanosis | Blue colored due to heart failure or respiratory disease.
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| Erythema | Reddened skin due to blushing, fever, hypertension, inflammation, or allergy.
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| Jaundice | Yellow colored due to liver disorder.
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| Epidermal Derivatives |
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| Hair | Hairs are distributed over our entire skin except palms, soles, lips, nipples and some external genitalia, senses bugs on skin, hair on scalp, eyelashes, nose hairs.
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| Pili (hair) | Flexible strands produced by hair follicles and consist of dead keratinized cells.
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| Regions | 1. Shaft 2. Root
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| 3 Layers of Keratinized cells | 1. Medulla 2. Cortex 3. Cuticle
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| Hair Follicle | Fold down from the epidermal surface into the dermis. Deep end of follicle forms a hair bulb, around each nerve is a sensory nerve ending called hair follicle receptors or root hair plexus Arrector Pili.
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| Types of Hair |
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| Vellus hair | Fine hair found on children and adult females.
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| Terminal hair | Coarser, long hair of eyebrows and scalp, often darker.
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| Hair Disorders |
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| Alopecia | Baldness; hair not replaced as fast as it sheds.
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| Male pattern Baldness | Genetically determined, sex-influenced condition.
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| Glands |
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| Sebaceous glands | Secrete serum made of fat, cholesterol, protein and salts to keep skin supple and inhibit bacteria.
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| Sudoiferous Glands | Sweat is composed of apocrine sweat glands in groin, axilia, and areola, merocrine glands produce watery perspiration to cool body on palms, soles, and forehead.
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| Ceruminous Glands | Found in lining of external ear canal, forms sticky substance called cerumen (ear wax).
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| Wound Healing |
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| Healing of Abrasions | Basal epidermal cells break contact with basement membrane. Cells enlarge and migrate until they meet.
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| Contact Inhibition (stops growth of cells) | Migration stops when in full contact. Basal stem cells now divide to form new cells. 24-48 hours healing.
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| Deep Wounds 5 Phases |
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| Inflammatory Response | Formation of clot of fibrin threads. Vasodilation to bring white blood cells to fight infection.
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| Migratory Phase | Clot becomes scab, epithelial cells migrate to bridge the wound. Fibroblasts travel along fibrin and form scar tissue of collagen and glycoproteins. Damaged vessels repair.
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| Proliferative Phase | Growth of epithelial cells, formation of collagen fibers.
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| Maturation Phase | Scab sloughs off, collagen is organized, fibroblasts decrease in number.
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| Remodeling | Scar tissue collagen is more dense, fewer blood vessels, and may not have sweat glands, hair or sensory neurons.
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| Burns | Tissue damage inflicted by intense heat, electric, radiation, and certain chemicals.
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| First Degree Burns | Only epidermis damaged, localized redness, swelling and pain, heals in 2-3 days.
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| Second Degree Burns | Injure epidermis and upper region of dermis. Mimic 1st degree burn, blisters appear. heals in 3-4 weeks.
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| Third Degree Burns | Entire thickness of skin, Appears grey-white, cherry red or blackened.
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| Rule of Nines |
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| Head | front:4.5%, back:4.5% both:9%
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| Arm | front:4.5%, back:4.5%, both:9%, both arms:18%
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| Trunk | front:18%, back:18%, both:36%
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| Leg | front:9%, back:9%, both:18%, both legs:36%
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| Skin Cancer |
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| Squamous cell carcinoma | Malignant tumor, skin and other areas.
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| Basal cell carcinoma | Common, slow growing, usually facial, rarely metastasizes.
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| Kaposi Sarcoma | Malignant, vascular, effects lower extremities, aids, usually middle aged men caused by herpes.
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| Malignant Melanoma | Looks like mole, sides do not match, border is irregular, brown, red, blue, dark brown, bigger than pencil eraser, a little elevated.
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| Mutations | When DNA gene is damaged or changed in such a way as to alter the genetic message carried by that gene.
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| Consequences |
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| Apoptosis | Cell dies off
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| Anaplastic Cells | Not normal/harmful
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| Lack of contact inhibition | Cell doesn't know when to stop reproducing.
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| Function of Kidney |
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| Blood | Filters the Hazardous nitrogenous wastes in our blood caused by the breakdown of proteins such as creatinine and urea.
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| Water | Reabsorbs water loss during filtration.
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| Wastes | Concentrates and removes wastes in liquid form (urine).
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| Layers of Kidney |
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| Renal Capsule | Thinner innermost layer protects kidney from infection.
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| Adipost | Cushions and holds kidney in place.
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| Renal Fascia | Outermost layer anchors in place to body wall.
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| Cortex | Outer reddish area forms columns.
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| Medulla | Inner region of kidney forms pyramids.
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| Pyramids | Triangular structure composed of medullary tissue.
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| Papillae | Structure at base of pyramids connects to calyces.
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| Columns | Between pyramids made of cortical tissue.
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| Calyces | Collect area for urine.
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| Pelvis | Large cavity that collects urine and leads out into ureter.
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| Bladder and Sphincter |
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| Urinary Bladder | Expandable sac with receptors.
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| Internal Sphincter | No control, empties around 200-400 ml of urine.
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| External Sphincter | Voluntary override;
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| Ureter Tubes lead to the bladder | Gravity and pressure controlled.
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| Urethra | Tube to the external environment.
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| Nephron |
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| Cortical Nephron |
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| Juxtamedullary Nephron (deeper) | Eliminates wastes from the body, regulates blood volume and BP, controls levels of electrolytes, regulates blood pH.
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| Parts of Nephron |
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| Bowmans (glomerular) Capsule | In cortex of the kidney, surrounds the glomerulus, site of filtration of the blood.
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| Glomerulus | Network of capillaries surrounded by the Bowmans capsules, site of filtration.
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| Proximal convoluted tubule | Where most of the water is absorbed by obligatory water reabsorption.
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| Descending limb of the loop of Henle |
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| Loop of Henle |
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| Ascending limb of the loop of Henle |
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| Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT) | Away from the Bowmans capsule
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| Collecting Duct |
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| Enzymes |
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| When BP drops, JG (juxtaglomerular) cells secrete an enzyme renin. |
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| Renin removes AA (Angiotensin-Aldosterone) from angiotensinogen to form angiotensin1 |
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| Angiotensin 1 goes to lungs, and enzymes convert it to angiotensin 2. |
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| Angiotensin 2 | Vasoconstricts to raise BP, reduces renal flow, stimulates secretion of aldosterone (hormone) from the adrenal cortex to stimulate thirst. (Aldosterone makes you thirsty).
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| Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) which controls the permeability of DCT and CT to water. |
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| No ADH | Collecting tubules impermeable to H2O so there is more H2O in urine, urine is more dilute, kidneys cant reabsorb the extra H2O it needs.
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| ADH Present | Urine is more concentrated, collecting tubules are permeable to H2O so more water is reabsorbed so urine is more concentrated.
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