Bio 2 Exam 3
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| mitosis | genetic material is copied and divided equally
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| meiosis | daughter cells inherit half the genetic material of the parent cell
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| functions of mitosis | growth, wound repair, asexual reproduction
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| G1 phase | replication of organelles and addition of cytoplasm
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| S phase | chromosome duplication
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| G2 phase | final preparation for division
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| Prophase | chromosomes condense and become visible in the light microscope
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| Prometaphase | nuclear envelope breaks down; nucleolus dissappears
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| Metaphase | formation of mitotic spindle is complete; chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell
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| Anaphase | centomeres splits; sister chromatids become daughter chromosomes
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| Telophase | new nuclear envelope begins to form around each set of chromosomes; mitosis is complete when two independent nuclei have formed
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| Cytokinesis | cytoplasm divides to form two daughter cells; occurs immediately after mitosis
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| chromosomes | contain a single long double helix of DNA wrapped around proteins
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| chromatin | DNA-Protein material
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| kinetochore | site of attachment for spindle fibers
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| MTOC | form spindle fibers
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| spindle fibers | made up have alpha and beta tubulin
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| gene | a section of DNA that governs a particular trait
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| autosomes | non-sex chromosomes
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| allele | variants of a gene
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| haploid | possesses only one of each type of chromosome
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| homologous (homologs) | same type
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| synapsis | process where chromosomes pair up in Meiosis I
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| Non-disjunction | erroneous pairing of chromosomes during Meiosis
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| G0 phase | where non-dividing cells are permanently stuck in the G1 phase ex: brain cells, nerve cells
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| environment | length of the M phase depends on the _____
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| the cell cycle is regulated and regulation varies among cells and organisms | variations in phase length suggest that ____ and ____
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| Mitosis-promoting factor (MPF) | present in the cytoplasm of the M-phase and induces mitosis in all eukaryotes
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| two distinct subunits: an enzyme kinase and cyclin | what is MPF composed of?
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| kinase | enzyme the phosphorylates a target protein
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| cyclin | functions as a regulatory protein
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| cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk) | active when bound to the cyclin subunit and activity is dependent on concentration of cyclin
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| factors that determine if cell will pass G1 checkpoint | cell size, nutrient availability, cell signals, health of DNA
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| factors that determine if cell will pass G2 checkpoint | if chromosome replication has not proceeded properly, if DNA is damaged
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| factors that determine if cell will pass M checkpoint | all kinetochores are safely attached to the spindle fibers, chromosomes have properly segregated and MPF is absent
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| benign tumor | non cancerous tumor cell that stay within original tissue and do not invade
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| malignant tumor | cancerous tumor cell that invades adjacent tissue
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| carcinoma | 90 % of cancers arise from epithelial cells that line body surfaces (lung, breast or colon cancer)
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| sarcoma | rare cancers, arise from connective tissue (bone, muscle, or fibrous tissue)
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| leukemias/lymphomas | cancers of blood or immune cells
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| proto-oncogene | a normal gene that stimulates growth or survival
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| oncogene | mutated proto-oncogene that contributes to cancer
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| tumor suppressor gene | normally inhibit cell growth or stimulate apoptosis; when lost/inactivated, the cell cycle 'brakes' are lost
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| p53 gene | stops the cell cycle and helps to repair damaged DNA
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| karyotype | number and types of chromosomes present in an organism
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| ploidy | indicates the number of each type of chromosome present and is designated by the letter n
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| diploid | organisms with two of each type of chromosome
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| Meiosis I | the diploid parent cell produces two haploid daughter cells
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| Meiosis II | the sister chromatids of each chromosome separate and go to different daughter cells
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| crossing over | occurs when chromosomal segments are swapped between adjacent homologs, results in the formation of a chiasmata
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| reductive division | end result of meiosis I, chromosome number is decreased
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| outcrossing | gametes from different individuals combine to form offspring
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| aneuploid zygotes | those with too few or too many chromosomes
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| downs syndrome | have an extra copy of chromosome #21
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| triploid syndrome | three pairs of homologous chromosomes
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| polyploid | cells and organisms containing more than two paired sets of chromosomes, non-vertebrates
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| asexual reproduction | produces clones that are genetically identical to one another, genetically identical to the parent
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| sexual reproduction | fusion of gametes that have a chromosome makeup different from that of one another and from that of either parent
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| Sex Paradox | asexual reproduction is a more efficient system than sexual reproduction; organisms reproducing asexually should be able to outcompete sexually reproducing organisms
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| Purifying Selection Hypothesis | natural selection against deleterious alleles; over time should steadily reduce the number of numerical advantage of asexual reproduction
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| Changing-Environment Hypothesis | offspring that are genetically different from their parents are more likely to survive and produce offspring if the environment changes
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| Blending Inheritance | parental traits blend in such a way that their offspring have intermediate traits
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| Inheritance of acquired characteristics | parental traits are modified and then passed on to their offspring
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| model organism | species that has been widely studied and has particular experimental advantages
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| pure line | produce identical offspring
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| hybrids | pure lines that differed in one or more traits
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| phenotype | an organism's observable features
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| genotype | the alleles an organism conveys
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| Parental generation | the original pure line parents that cross
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| F1 generation | the offspring of the parental generation cross
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| F2 generation | the offspring of the F1 generation cross
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| Independent Assortment | alleles of different genes are transmitted independently of each other
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| Principal of Segregation | pairs of alleles are separated during meiosis in the formation of gametes
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| Chromosome Theory of Inheritance | states that chromosomes are composed of hereditary determinants
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| wild type | most common phenotype for each trait
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| mutant | differ from wild type, change in the gene
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| sex-linked inheritance | various inheritance patterns that can occur when genes are carried on the sex chromosomes
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| autosomal inheritance | genes on autosomes
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| linkage | physical association of two or more genes found on the same chromosome
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| sex-linkage | single gene is found on sex chromosome
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| pleiotropic | genes that influence multiple traits
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| genetic recombination | leads to the emergence of new phenotypes
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| multiple allelism | traits depend on a combination of many genes
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| pedigrees | family trees used to analyze human crosses that already exist because experimental crosses cannot be done on humans; record the genetic relationships among the individuals in a family
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| X-linked recessive allele | males are more likely to exhibit the phenotype, unaffected parents of an affected individual are likely to be carriers
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