Biology for Today Exam #2 Chapters 4-6
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| Proteins | macromolecules; polymers made of covalently linked monomers (amino acids)
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| Amino Acid | organic molecule with both an amino group and a carboxyl group; monomers that make up proteins
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| What changes from amino acid to polypeptide? | the amino acid backbone
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| Peptide bond | special type of covalent bond formed by dehydration synthesis between 2 amino acids
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| dipeptide | a pair of amino acids linked by a peptide bond
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| polypeptide | long chain (polymers) of amino acids linked by a peptide bond
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| Primary Structure of proteins | linear sequence of amino acids where each amino acid is linked by a peptide bond
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| Secondary Structure of proteins | alpha-helix
beta-pleated sheet
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| Tertiary Structure of proteins |
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| Quaternary Structure | when several polypeptides interact with each other
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| Collagen | fibrous protein composed of long peptide chains woven together to form fibers
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| Keratin | fibrous, structural protein found in scales, horns, wool, nails and feathers
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| Silk | fibrous protein
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| Globular proteins | includes enzymes, antibodies, etc.
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| RNA | ribonucleic acid
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| DNA | deoxyribonucleic acid
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| Replication | DNA synthesis
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| Transcription | RNA synthesis
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| Translation | protein synthesis
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| Nucleotides | monomers of nucleic acids
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| Robert Hooke | first to visualize the cell in 1665
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| Antoni van Leewenhoek | first to visualize a living cell in 1674
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| Matthew Schleiden | proposed all plants are composed of cells in 1838
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| Theodor Schwann | proposed all animals consist of cells in 1839
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| Rudolf Virchow | first proposed that all cells arise from preexisting cells in 1858
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| Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) | -used to study the cells interior
-theoretical resolving power 0.5nm
-practical resolving power 2.0nm
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| Scanning Electron Microscope | -used for 3D imaging of structures
-resolving power of 10nm
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| Plasma Membrane | separates each cell from its environment, creating a segregated, but not isolated compartment; consist of a phospholipid bilayer
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| Functions of the Membrane | - selectively permeable
- important in communicating with adjacent cells and receiving signals
- allows maintaining of homeostasis
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| Prokaryotic Cells | - can live off more different and diverse energy sources than any other living thing
- can inhabit greater environment extremes
- generally smaller than eukaryotic cells
- single cell, sometimes found in groups
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| Eukaryotic Cells | - found in plants, animals, fungi and protists
- have two things not usually found in prokaryotes: cytoskeleton and membranous compartment
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| Nucleus | stores most of the cell's DNA; usually the largest organelle in an eukaryotic cell
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| Functions of the Nucleus | 1) site of DNA duplication to support cell reproduction
2) site of DNA control of cellular activities
3) nucleolus is the site of synthesis of RNA
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| Ribosome | used in prokaryotic & eukaryotic cells to synthesize proteins
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| Endoplasmic Reticulum | system of interconnected membranes branching throughout the cytoplasm
** can be found as tubes or flattened sacs
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| Rough ER | - studded with ribosomes
- may be continuous with the nuclear envelope
- modifies proteins
- transport vesicles
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| Smooth ER | - lacks ribosomes attached to it
- many different functions, often pertinent to cell type
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| The Golgi Apparatus (Golgi) | - discovered initially by Camillo Golgi in 1898
- existence not confirmed until 1950's and advent of TEM
**consists of flattened sacs (cisternae) and small membrane-enclosed vesicles
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| Two Poles of Golgi | 1) Cis-face (receiving)
2) Trans-face (shipping)
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| What happens in the Golgi? | modification of proteins
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| Two Organelles in Eukaryotic Cells that Process Energy | Chloroplasts and Mitochondria
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| Mitochondrion | - double membrane organelle
- number per cell will vary
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| Mitochondrial Matrix | - region enclosed by inner membrane
- contains the DNA and ribosomes needed to make some of the proteins used in cellular respiration
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| Mitochondrial DNA | - exists as a circular DNA molecule
- attached to the inner membrane of the mitochondria
- maternally inherited
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| What is energy? | the ability to do work
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| potential energy | energy which is stored or at rest
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| kinetic energy | energy in action or at work
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| Types of Energy | - Total energy (enthalpy) = H
- Usable energy (free) = G
- Unusable energy (entropy) = S
- Absolute Temperature = T
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| 1st Law of Thermodynamics | Energy is neither created nor destroyed, it only changes from one form to another; energy is conserved.
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| 2nd Law of Thermodynamics | The total energy of a system always decreases and results in an increase in entropy or disorder.
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| closed energy system | system which is not exchanging energy with its surroundings
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| open energy system | system which exchanges matter and energy with its surroundings
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| spontaneous reaction | when a reaction goes to more than halfway to completion without an input of free energy
-- release free energy
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| non spontaneous reaction | proceed only with an input of free energy from the environment
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| What are enzymes? | biological catalysts; speed up reactions without being consumed in the reaction
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| catalyst | molecule that facilitates a reaction without itself being consumed in the reaction
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| Coenzymes | relatively small compared with the enzyme to which they temporarily bind
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| Characteristics of Enzymes | - enzymes have an optimal temperature at which they operate most efficiently
- enzymes have an optimal pH
- specific in the reactions that they catalyze
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| Factors affecting enzymatic activity | - substrate concentration vs. rate of reaction
- temperature vs. rate of reaction
- pH vs. rate of reaction
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| turnover number | the number of molecules of substrate converted by an enzyme molecule per unit of time
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| Enzyme Inhibitors | - normal binding
- competitive inhibition
- noncompetitive inhibition
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