vocabulary
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| sociology | the systematic study of human society
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| manifest functions | the recognized and intended consequences of a social structure or institution in society
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| latent functions | the unrecognized and unintended consequences of a social structure or institution in society
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| social dysfunction | any social pattern that may disrupt the operation of society
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| variable | a concept whose value changes from case to case
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| correlation | a relationship in which two or more variables changes together
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| cause and effect | a relationship in which change in one variable (the independent variable cause change in another (the dependent variable)
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| culture | the way of thinking, the way of acting, and the material objects that together form a people's way of life
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| society | people who interact in a defined territory and share a culture
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| values | culturally defined standards that people use to decide what is desirable, good and beautiful and that serve as broad guidelines for social living
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| beliefs | specific statements that people hold to be true
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| norms | rules and expectations by which a society guides the behavior of its members
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| mores | norms that are widely observed and have great moral significance
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| folkways | norms for routine or casual interaction
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| technology | knowledge that people use to make a way of life in their surroundings
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| socialization | the lifelong social experience by which people develop their human potential and learns culture
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| personality | a person's fairly consistent patterns of acting, thinking, and feeling
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| id | Freud's term for the human being's basic drives
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| ego | Freud's term for a person's conscious efforts to balance innate pleasure-seeking drives with the demands of society
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| superego | Freud's term for cultural values and norms internalized by an individual
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| sensorimotor stage | Piaget's term for the level of human development at which individuals experience the world only through their senses
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| preoperational stage | Piaget's term for the level of human development at which individuals first use language and other symbols
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| concrete operational stage | Piaget's term for the level of of human development at which individuals first see causal connections in their surroundings
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| formal operational stage | Piaget's term for the level of human development at which individuals think abstractly and critically
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| self | George Herbert Mead's term for the part of an individual's personality composed of self-awareness and self-image
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| looking-glass self | Charles Horton Cooley's term of self-image based on how we think other sees us
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| significant others | people, such as parents, who have special importance for socialization
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| generalized other | Mead's term for widespread cultural norms and values we use as reference in evaluating ourselves
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| peer group | the social group whose members have interests, social position, and age in common
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| total institution | a setting in which people are isolated from the rest of society and manipulated by administrative staff
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| resocialization | radically changing an inmate's personality by carefully controlling their environment
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| social interaction | the process by which people act and react in relation to others
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| status | a social position that a person a holds
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| status set | all the statuses a person hold at a given time
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| ascribed status | a social position a person receives at birth or takes on involuntary later in life
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| achieved status | a social position a person takes on voluntary that reflects personal ability and effort
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| master status | a status that has special importance for social identity, often shaping a person's entire life
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| role | behavior expected of someone who holds a particular status
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| role set | a number of roles attached to a single status
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| role conflict | conflict among the roles connected to two or more statuses
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| role strain | tension among the roles connected to a single status
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| social construction of reality | the process by which people creatively shape reality through social interaction
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| Thomas theorem | W.I. Thomas' statement that situations define as real are real in their consequences
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| personal space | the surrounding area over which a person makes some claim to privacy
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| social group | two or more people who identify and interact with one another
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| primary group | small social group whose members share personal and lasting relationships
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| secondary group | a large and impersonal social group whose members pursue a specific goal or activity
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| dyad | a social group with two members
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| formal organization | a large secondary group organized to achieve its goals efficiently
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| organizational environment | factors outside an organization that affect its operation
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| bureaucratic ritualism | a focus on rules and regulations to the point of interfering with an organization's goals
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| sex | the biological distinction between females and males
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| primary sex characteristics | the genitals, organs used for reproduction
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| secondary sex characteristics | bodily development, apart from the genitals, that distinguishes biologically mature females and males
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| sexual orientation | a person' romantic and emotional attraction to another person
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| pornography | sexually explicit material intended to cause sexual arousal
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| deviance | the recognized violation of cultural norms
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| crime | the violation of society's formally enacted criminal law
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| social control | attempt by society to regulate people's thoughts and behavior
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| criminal justice system | a formal response by police, courts, and prison officials to alleged violations of the law
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| labeling theory | the idea that deviance and conformity result not so much form what people do as form how others respond to those actions
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| stigma | a powerfully negative label that greatly changes a person's self-concept and social identity
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| crimes against the person | (violent crimes) crimes that direct violence or the threat of violence against others
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| retribution | an act of moral vengeance by which society makes the offender suffer as much as the suffering caused by the crime
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| deterrance | the attempt to discourage criminality through the use of punishment
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| rehabilitation | a program for reforming the offender to prent later offenses
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| societal protection | rendering an offender incapable of further offense temporarily through imprisonment or permanently by execution
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| criminal recidivism | later offenses by people previously convicted of crimes
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