Biological Rhthyms
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| The _________ Houses an Endogenous Circadian Clock | Hypothalamus
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| ________ rhythms are regular fluctuations in a living process | Biological
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| Biological rhythms include which three rhythms? | circadian, ultracadian, and infradian
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| Circadian rhythms have a rhythm of about _#_ hours | 24
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| Ultradian rhythms repeat more than once a day and include things like... | bouts of activity, feeding,and hormone release
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| Infradian rhythms repeat less than once a day and include things like... | body weight and reproductive cycles
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| Biological rhythms are regular _________ in a living process | fluctuations
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| ________s are active during the light ________s are active during the dark | Diurnal, Nocturnal
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| A ______ shift is the shift in activity in response to a synchronizing stimulus, such as light or food | phase
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| _________ is the process of shifting the rhythm | Entrainment
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| The cue that an animal uses to synchronize with the environment is called a _______ or “time-giver” | zeitgeber
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| The biological clock is located in the _____________ ________—above the optic chiasm in the hypothalamus | suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
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| SCN-lesioned animals showed what? | disrupted circadian rhythms
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| Isolated SCN cells maintain electrical activity that is what? | synchronized to the previous light cycle
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| __________ studies proved that the SCN produces a circadian rhythm | Transplant
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| Hamsters with SCN lesions received a SCN tissue transplant from hamsters with a very short period, ~20 hours. What was the result? | Circadian rhythms were restored but matched the shorter period of the donor
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| Circadian rhythms entrain to light-dark cycles using different pathways, some outside of the eye | ;)
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| The pineal gland in amphibians and birds is sensitive to _____ | light
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| ________ is secreted from the pineal gland to inform the brain about light | Melatonin
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| In mammals, light information goes from the eye to the SCN via the ___________ pathway | retinohypothalamic
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| retinohypothalamic pathway: Some retinal ________ cells project to the SCN | ganglion
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| retinohypothalamic pathway: Most of the retinal ganglion cells contain ________, a special photopigment, that makes them sensitive to light | melanopsin
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| SCN cells in mammals make two proteins: | Clock & Cycle
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| Clock and Cycle proteins bind together to form a what? | dimer
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| The Clock/Cycle dimer binds to DNA and promotes the transcription of 2 genes: | Period (per) and Cryptochrome (cry) [Per and Cry proteins bind to each other and to protein Tau]
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| Molecular clock: The Per/Cry/Tau protein complex enters the nucleus and ______ the transcription of per and cry | inhibits
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| Molecular clock: What does this inhibition cause? | No new proteins are made until the first set degrades, The cycle repeats ~every 24 hours
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| mutations of _____ gene in Drosophila helped understand circadian clock in mammals | period
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| Gene ________ show how important the clock is to behavior in constant conditions: | mutations
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| In tau mutations the period is ______ than normal | shorter
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| Double Clock mutants are severely _________ | arrhythmic
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| Sleep is synchronized to _______ events, including light and dark | external
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| In the absence of cues, humans have a freerunning period of approximately _#_ hours | 25
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| Electrical brain ________can be used to classify levels of arousal and states of sleep | potentials
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| Electroencephalogram (EEG): continuous scalp recording; summed Post-Synaptic Potentials (____ and ____) of synchronously firing pyramidal cells in neocortex | IPSP and EPSP
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| There are Two distinct classes of sleep: | Slow-wave sleep (SWS) and Rapid-eye-movement sleep (REM)
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| Slow-wave sleep (SWS) can be divided into _#_ stages and is characterized by slow-wave EEG activity | 4
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| Rapid-eye-movement sleep (REM) is characterized by small ________, fast-EEG waves, no postural tension, and rapid eye movements | amplitude
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| The pattern of activity in an awake person contains many __________ | frequencies:
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| These frequencies are dominated by waves of ____ frequency and ___ amplitude (15 to 20 Hz) • Known as beta activity or desynchronized EEG | fast, low
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| Alpha rhythm occurs in _________, a regular oscillation of 8 to 12 Hz | relaxation
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| Four stages of slow-wave sleep: Stage 1 sleep shows events of ________ frequency and _______ amplitude, as well as vertex spikes, or sharp waves | irregular, smaller
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| Four stages of slow-wave sleep: Stage 1 sleep causes what physical things to happen? (3) | Heart rate slows, muscle tension reduces, eyes move about
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| Four stages of slow-wave sleep: how long does Stage 1 sleep last? | Lasts several minutes
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| Four stages of slow-wave sleep: Stage 2 sleep is Defined by waves of 12 to 14 Hz that occur in bursts, called _____ _________ | sleep spindles
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| Four stages of slow-wave sleep: in Stage 2 sleep, K-complexes appear which are what? | —sharp negative EEG potentials
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| Four stages of slow-wave sleep: Early stage 3 sleep Continues _____ _________ as in stage 2 | sleep spindles
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| Four stages of slow-wave sleep: Early stage 3 sleep is Defined by the appearance of _____-amplitude, very slow waves called _____ waves | large, delta
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| Four stages of slow-wave sleep: Early stage 3 sleep: how often do Delta waves occur? | about once per second
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| Four stages of slow-wave sleep: in Late stage 3 sleep Delta waves are present about ____ the time | half
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| Four stages of slow-wave sleep: ___ sleep follows SWS | REM
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| REM sleep: Active EEG with _____-amplitude, _____-frequency waves, like an awake person | small, high
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| REM sleep: Muscles are relaxed—called _______ sleep | paradoxical
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| Vivid dreams occur during REM sleep, characterized by: | Visual imagery and Sense that the dreamer is “there”
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| _________ are frightening dreams that awaken the sleeper from REM sleep | Nightmares
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| ______ _______ are sudden arousals from stage 3 SWS, marked by fear and autonomic activity | Night terrors
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| Nearly all mammals display both REM and SWS. Birds also display both REM and SWS sleep. Dolphins don’t show REM sleep however, because why? | relaxed muscles are incompatible surface breathing
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| In dolphins and birds, only one brain hemisphere enters SWS at a time; the other remains _______ | awake
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| Typical young adult sleep 7–8 hours/night: __-__% in stage 2; __% in REM | 45–50, 20
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| Typical young adult sleep 7–8 hours/night: Cycles last __-___minutes | 90–110
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| Typical young adult sleep 7–8 hours/night: In Earlier cycles, there's more ___ ; later cycles more ___ | stage 3 SWS, REM
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| Infant sleep is characterized by: (2) | Shorter sleep cycles and More REM sleep – 50%, which may
provide essential stimulation to the developing nervous system
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| As we age, what happens to our sleep and wake times? | sleep time declines and wake time increases
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| The biggest loss is time spent in stage _#_: – By 60, only half as much time is spent as at age 20 – By 90, it has disappeared | 3
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| sleep deprivation: Effects can vary with age and other factors. But what are three common effects? | Increased irritability, Difficulty in concentrating, and Episodes of disorientation
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| Randy Gardner’s HS science fair project - How long could he go without sleep? He managed _#_ consecutive days with no signs of insanity | 11
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| ______ _________ is the process of sleeping more than normally, after a period of deprivation | Sleep recovery
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| Sleep recovery: Night 1 | stage 3 sleep is increased, but stage 2 is decreased
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| Sleep recovery: Night 2 | most recovery of REM sleep, which is more intense than normal with more rapid eye movements
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| Sleep deprivation can be fatal: Total sleep deprivation compromises the ________ ________ and leads to death | immune system
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| The disease _____ ________ insomnia is inherited – in midlife people stop sleeping and die 7–24 months after onset of the insomnia | fatal familial
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| Degeneration of ______ ______ was found in patient with fatal familial insomnia; | frontal cortex
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| The bodies need sleep for what 4 things? | Energy conservation, Niche adaptation, Body restoration, and Memory consolidation
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| Sleep may aid memory consolidation: Sleep during the interval between learning and recall may reduce what? | interfering stimuli
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| Sleep may aid memory consolidation: Memory typically _____ and sleep may slow this down | decays
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| Sleep may aid memory consolidation: Or sleep, especially ___, may actively contribute through processes that consolidate the learned material | REM
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| Sleep is an active state mediated by what 4 interacting neural systems? | forebrain, brainstem, pontine, and hypothalamic systems
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| A forebrain system—displays ____ | SWS
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| A brainstem system—activates the _______ | forebrain
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| A pontine system—triggers ____ _______ | REM sleep
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| A hypothalamic system—does what? | affects the other three systems
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| _________ experiments showed that different sleep systems originate in different parts of the brain | Transection
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| The isolated brain is made by an incision between the ________ and the _______ ______ | medulla and the spinal cord
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| Animals with this incision showed signs of sleep and wakefulness, proving what? | that the networks reside in the brain
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| An isolated forebrain is made by an incision in the ________ | midbrain
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| The electrical activity in the forebrain showed constant SWS, but not REM—thus, the forebrain alone can generate ____ | SWS
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| The constant SWS activity in the forebrain is generated by the ______ _______, a ventral region | basal forebrain
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| Neurons in this region become active at sleep onset and release _____ | GABA
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| GABA activates receptors in the nearby ___________ nucleus | tuberomamillary
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| GABA receptors are also stimulated by general _________ to produce slow waves resembling SWS | anesthetics
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| What is able to activate the cortex? | The reticular formation .
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| Electrical stimulation of this area will _____ __ sleeping animals | wake up
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| Lesions of this area promote ______ | sleep
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| The forebrain and reticular formation seem to guide the brain between ___ and ___________ | SWS and wakefulness
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| An area of the pons, near the locus coeruleus, is responsible for what kind of sleep? | REM sleep (Some neurons in this region are only active during REM sleep )
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| this area of the pons inhibit motoneurons to keep them from firing, which disables what during REM? | disabling the motor system during REM sleep
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| The study of _________ revealed the hypothalamic sleep center. | narcolepsy
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| Narcolepsy sufferers have frequent what? | sleep attacks and excessive daytime sleepiness
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| Narcolepsy sufferers do not go through ___ before REM sleep | SWS
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| Narcolepsy sufferers may show _________—a sudden loss of muscle tone, leading to collapse | cataplexy
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| Narcoleptic dogs have a mutant gene for a _______ receptor | hypocretin
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| Hypocretin normally prevents what? | the transition from wakefulness directly into REM sleep
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| Interfering with hypocretin signaling leads to ________ | narcolepsy
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| Hypocretin neurons in the hypothalamus project to other sleep system centers: (3) | the basal forebrain, the reticular formation, and the locus coeruleus
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| Axons also go to the tuberomamillary nucleus, whose inhibition induces what? | SWS
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| The ___________ seems to contain a hypocretin sleep that controls wakefulness, SWS sleep, or REM sleep | hypothalamus
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| ______ _________ is the brief inability to move just before falling asleep, or just after waking up | Sleep paralysis
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| sleep paralysis may be caused by the _______ _______ continuing to signal for muscle relaxation, even when awake | pontine center
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| Sleep disorders in children: Night terrors and sleep enuresis (bed-wetting) are associated with what kind of sleep? | SWS
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| Sleep disorders in children: Somnambulism (sleepwalking) occurs during stage _#_ SWS, and may persist into adulthood | 3
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| REM behavior disorder (RBD) is characterized by what? | organized behavior from an asleep person (fighting an imaginary foe for example)
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| RBD usually begins after age 50 and may be followed by beginning symptoms of Parkinson’s disease. This suggests what? | damage in the brain motor systems
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| ____-_____ insomnia is a difficulty in falling asleep, and can be caused by situational factors, such as shift work or jet lag | Sleep-onset insomnia
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| _____-________ insomnia is a difficulty in staying asleep and may be caused by drugs or neurological factors | Sleep-maintenance insomnia
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| In ______ _______, breathing may stop or slow down when muscles in the chest and diaphragm relax too much or respiratory neurons in the brain stem don’t signal properly | sleep apnea
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| Sleep state misperception occurs when what? | people report insomnia even when they were asleep
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| ________ _______ _______ __________ is sleep apnea resulting from immature respiratory pacemaker systems or arousal mechanisms | Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)
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| what can prevent the infant from suffocation due to apnea? | Putting babies to sleep on their backs
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| Most sleeping pills bind to ____ receptors throughout the brain | GABA
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| Continued use of sleeping pills can cause what 3 things? | • Makes them ineffective
• Produces marked changes in sleep patterns that
persist even when not taking the drug
• Can lead to drowsiness and memory gaps
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