Biology
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| Reason for reproducing | to pass on genetic information
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| Genetic information | DNA
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| Evolution | the change in living things over time (creates a change in genetic make up)
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| Adaptations | Changes in a species over many generations due to the environmental pressures--not choice
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| Natural Selection | survival of the fittest
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| Nucleic Acids | DNA or RNA, have instructions to build proteins
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| DNA and RNA | Nucleic Acids
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| Population | a group of organisms of the same species in the same location
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| Abiotic Factors | Non-living
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| Biotic Factors | Living
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| Autotroph | make own food (producer)
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| Heterotroph | Gets energy by eating other living things or once living things (consumer)
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| Food Web | a complex network of feeding relationships and the flow of energy
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| Mutualism | ecological relationship between two species in which each species gets a benefit from the interaction
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| Commensalism | ecological relationship in which one species receives a benefit but the other species is not affected
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| Parasitism | ecological relationship in which one organism benefits by harming another organism
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| Predation | process by which one organism hunts another organism
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| exponential growth | when a population size increases dramatically and does not level off, limiting factors are not yet used up
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| logistic growth | begins with a period of slow growth followed by a brief period of exponential growth, eventually reaching carrying capacity
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| carrying capacity | the maximum number of individuals of a particular species that the environment can normally and consistently support
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| runs low on food and space | when the carrying capacity has been hit
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| Cell Cycle | regular pattern of growth, DNA duplication and cell division
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| Mitosis | the division of the cell nucleus and its contents
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| 2 genetically identical daughter cells | the product of mitosis
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| interphase | preparing to divide (copies DNA)
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| prophase | nuclear envelope begins to break down, spindle fibers form and centrioles begin to move to opposite poles
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| metaphase | spindle fibers attach on the centromere of each chromosome and the chromosomes align along the equator of the cell
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| anaphase | chromosomes separate from each other and move to opposite sides of the cell
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| telophase | a complete set of identical chromosomes is positioned at each pole of the cell, nuclear membranes start to form, chromosomes start to uncoil and spindle fibers fall apart
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| cancer | uncontrolled cell division where the cells contribute nothing to the body's function, but take up food and blood supply
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| normal cells that have genes that have been damaged and now carry mutated genes and divide more rapidly than healthy cells | cancer cells
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| Macromolecules | organic molecules which combine to form living organisms; includes carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids
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| deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) | double-stranded nucleic acid found in the nucleus which provides instruction for making proteins; provides hereditary information
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| ribonucleic acid (RNA) | single stranded nucleic acid made during transcription to provide template for making proteins at ribosome during translation
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| cell cycle | components include interphase, mitosis and cytokinesis
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| interphase | part of the cell cycle; resting stage of cell and preparation for mitosis; includes G 1 (duplication of organelles) S phase(replication of DNA) and G 2 (checking of replication)
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| mitosis | part of cell cycle; division of the nucleus; includes prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase
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| cytokinesis | part of cell cycle; division of cytoplasm and organelles except nucleus
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| cancer | uncontrolled cell division; creates tumors and interferes with normal cell function
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| Nucleotide | A subunit (monomer) of nucleic acids like DNA and RNA. Composed of a sugar, phosphate, and nitrogenous base.
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| Phosphate Group | Component of DNA or RNA nucleotide
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| DNA Bases | Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, and Guanine in DNA.
Adenine, Uracil, Cytosine, and Guanine in RNA.
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| Genetic Code | The code found in DNA that matches codons in mRNA to amino acids on tRNA.
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| Genome | An organism's complete set of genetic information (DNA).
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| Transcription | The process where a copy of mRNA is made from one gene in DNA; occurs in nucleus
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| Translation | The process of making a protein, where tRNA matches amino acids to codons in the mRNA; occurs in ribosome
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| Meiosis | cell division creating sex cells with half the amount of DNA(haploid)
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| Monohybrid cross | punnett square showing results of genetic cross of one trait
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| Dominant | allele with stronger genetic trait always expressed
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| homozygous | alleles with the same genetic information
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| Non-Mendelian Inheritance | genetic inheritance pattern different from dominant hides recessive trait such as codominance, imcomplete dominance
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| Incomplete Dominance | genetic inheritance pattern where phenotype of offspring are a blend between two separate parental phenotypes
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| Genetic Mutation | changes in organism's DNA sequence
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| Deletion | changes in genetic code with removal of nucleotides
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| Insertion | changes in genetic code with addition of nucleotides
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| Gene | A sectiong of DNA that codes for a trait.
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| Punnett Square | graphic organizer showing predicted results of a genetic cross
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| Dihybrid cross | punnett square showing results of genetic cross of two traits
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| Mendelian Inheritance | genetic inheritance pattern when dominant trait always masks or hides phenotype of recessive trait
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| gametes | Haploid cells created by meiosis; sperm or egg
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| Independent Assortment | Mendel principle states different pairs of genes are passed to offsrping separately to form new gene combinations
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| Crossing Over | exchange of DNA from separate chromosomes during meiosis
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| Segregation | Mendel principle that gene pairs separate during meiosis so each parent passes down one form of gene to offspring.
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| Common Ancestor | the most recent ancestral form or species from which two different species evolved
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| Fossil Record | A term used by paleontologists to refer to the total number of fossils that have been discovered, as well as to the information derived from them
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| Anatomical Evidence | morphological(form or structure) or physiological (function) similarities between different species of plants or animals
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| Molecular Evidence | genes shared due to common ancestry
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| Natural Selection | the process by which forms of life having traits that better enable them to adapt to specific environmental pressures
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| Adaptations | characteristic that increases fitness and chances of reproduction
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| Diversity | degree of variation of life forms within a given ecosystem, biome, or an entire planet
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| Evolutionary Mechanisms/Factors that cause evolution | Mutation, migration (gene flow), genetic drift, and natural selection
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| Genetic Drift | change in the frequency of a gene variant (allele) in a population due to random sampling
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| Gene Flow | the transfer of alleles of genes from one population to another
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| Mutation | a permanent change in the DNA sequence of a gene's which alters the amino acid sequence of the protein encoded by the gene
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| Taxonomy | classfy living organisms into groups; (Domain),Kingdom,Phylum,Class,Order,Family,Genus,Species
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| Archaea Kingdom | prokaryotic kingdom of bacteria able to live in harsh enviroments which are hot,salty or acidic
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| Eubacteria Kingdom | prokaryotic kingdom of bacteria with majority of organisms are beneficial and only a few are harmful
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| Protist Kingdom | eukaryotic kingdom of mostly one celled organism divided into 3 groups: animal like, plant like, and fungus like
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| Fungi Kingdom | eukaryotic kingdom of heterotrophic decomposers with cell walls made of chitin
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| Plant Kingdom | eukaryotic kingdom of autotrophic, multicellular stationary organisms which undergo photosynthesis
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| Animal Kingdom | eukaryotic kingdom of heterotrophic, multicellular mobile organisms.
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| Population | a group of organisms of the same species that live in the same area and interbreed
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| Limiting Factors | any factor that limits the size of a population by restricting its numbers, reproduction, or distribution
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| Carrying Capacity | the maximum population a habitat can sustain
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| Predation | a relationship between two species where one species hunts (predator) and eats the other species (prey)
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| Competition | a relationship between two species where they both require the same resource (food, water, shelter, space) and must compete for it
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| Parasitism | a relationship between two species where one species is helped and the other species is harmed
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| Commensalism | a relationship between two species where one species is helped and the other species is not affected
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| Mutualism | a relationship between two species where both species are helped
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| Autotroph | an organism that can use photosynthesis to make its own food: "self-feeding"
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| Heterotroph | an organism that cannot use photosynthesis to make its own food and must eat other organisms to survive: "other-feeding"
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| Trophic Level | the position a species occupies in a food chain; ex. producer, primary consumer, secondary consumer
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| Food Web | a combination of several food chains within an ecosystem
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| Ecological Pyramid | a graphic representation of the amount of biomass present in each trophic level of a food chain; producers are always on the bottom, then primary consumers, then secondary consumers and so on
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| 10% rule | Only 10% of the total available energy is transferred to each trophic level
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| protein synthesis | - the info in DNA bases are copied onto a length of a mRNA - mRNA moves to the ribosome - mRNA is brought together with amino acids - resulting in a chain of amino acids that folds into a protein
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| cell division takes place because | cells die and need to be replaced
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| cell division includes | 1. interphase 2. mitosis 3. cytokinesis
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| replication | the duplication of DNA - 2 strands of double helix unwind - each strand serves as a template for a 2nd DNA strand - resulting in doubling the original amount of DNA
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| mitosis | â—¦The apportioning of the copied DNA into two quantities in a parent cell
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| cytokinesis | â—¦The physical splitting of this parent cell into two daughter cells
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| chromosome | packaged units of DNA - composed of DNA and its associated proteins-Chromatin
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| homologous chromosomes | - genes are in the same location - 46 chromosomes, 23 pairs - xx: females; xy: males
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| interphase | the cell carries out it's work, grows, and duplicates its chromosomes in preparation for division
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| mitotic phase | - the duplicated chromosomes separate (mitosis) and cells split into two (cytokinesis)
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| 4 stages of mitosis | 1. prophase 2. metaphase 3. anaphase 4. telophase
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| prophase | mitosis begins and chromosomes take shape
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| metaphase | sister chromatids and align them in middle
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| anaphase | sister chromatids are moved apart to opposite poles in the cell, each becoming full-fledged chromosome
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| telophase | Cleavage furrow forms, cells start to split into 2
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| karyotype | a pictorial arrangement of a full set of an organism's chromosomes
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| diploid cells | have paired sets of chromosomes; any cell except gametes(sperm/egg)
- haploid egg and sperm=diploid egg
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| haploid cells | cells that contain a single set of chromosomes; half the amount of chromosomes of parent cells
- reproductive
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| Meiosis | single diploid cell divides to produce 4 haploid cells
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| gametes | the haploid cells produced during meiosis
- female: eggs
- male: sperm
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| crossing over | process in meiosis that exchange of parts of chromosomes; increases genetic diversity
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| independent assortment | random alignment of maternal/paternal chromosomes at the metaphase plate; - allows for genetic variation
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| meiosis generates diversity by: | -crossing over and independent assortment
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| asexual reproduction | mitosis; produces organisms that are exact genetic copies, or clones, of the parental organism
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| n | condition of being haploid: having a single set of chromosomes
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| 2n | condition of being diploid: having 2 sets of chromosomes, one from each parent
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| Gregor Mendel | o Father of genetics
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| Phenotype | o any physiological feature, bodily characteristic, or behavior of an organism; ex. Purple or white flowers
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| genotype | o genetic makeup
o phenotypes of organisms are largely determined by this
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| alleles | o one of the alternative forms of a single gene
o seeds: one codes for yellow, ones for green
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| law of segregation | o differing characters in organisms result from 2 genetic elements (alleles) that separate in gamete formation, such that each gamete gets only one of the 2 alleles
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| homozygous | - an organism that has 2 of the SAME alleles of a gene for a given character
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| heterozygous | o the alleles they have for the trait are DIFFERENT
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| dominant | o expressed in heterozygous condition
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| recessive | o conditions that will not exist in the presence of even a single functional allele
o not expressed in the heterozygous condition
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| incomplete dominance | o operates when neither allele for a given gene is completely dominant; blending. Incomplete=inbetween
o can yield an intermediate phenotype (pink , when red is dominant and white is recessive)
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| co-dominant alleles | o differing alleles of a single gene have independent effects on the phenotype
o ex. One individual has type A, the other has type B= type AB blood
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| polygenic inheritance | o one trait determined by the interaction of multiple genes, each having a small additive effect on character
o eye color, hair color, etc.
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| pleiotropy | one gene has many effects (opposite of polygenic)
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| dihybrid cross | o an experimental cross in which the plants used differ in two of their characteristics
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| first filial generation (F1) | the offspring of the parental generation in an experimental genetic cross
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| multiple alleles | o 3 or more alleles-alternative forms of a gene-occurring in a population
(blood typing has A, B, and O alleles)
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| x-linked inheritance | trait located on the sex chromosome
-usally x-linked; - men more likely than women bc women have an extra X chromosome to make up for defects
- ex. red-green color blindness
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| autosomal recessive disorder | o a recessive dysfunction caused by a faulty allele on an autosome (not an X or Y chromosome)
o ex. Sickle-cell anemia
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| autosomal dominant disorder | o a single allele can bring about the condition regardless of whether a person also has a normal allele
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| pedigrees | genetic familial histories that take form of diagrams
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| nondisjunction | o homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids fail to separate correctly in meiosis
o resulting in eggs or sperm that have one too many or one too few chromosomes
Ex: down syndrome- 3 copies of 21st chromosome instead of two
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| carrier | o a person who doesn't suffer from a recessive condition, but who carries an allele and can pass down
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| Watson, Crick, and Rosalind Franklin | o Set out to decipher the structure of DNA
o Franklin used x-ray diffraction
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| nucleotides | o building blocks of DNA
o consist of one sugar (deoxyribose), one phosphate group, and one of four bases (adenine, guanine, thymine, or cytosine)
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| DNA bases | o extend inward from the handrails of DNA, with base pairs joined to each other in the middle by hydrogen bonds
o A pairs with T
o G pairs with C
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| production of double helix | o one parental strand of DNA and one newly synthesized complementary strand combine
o this is how life builds on itself
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| DNA polymerases | group of enzymes central to DNA replication
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| DNA can encode info for: | the huge amount of proteins used by living things
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| amino acids | o made of a codon of 3 bases, order determines the type of proteins
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| transcription | o stage in protein synthesis, comes after replication
o the info encoded in DNA is copied onto a length of mRNA
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| translation | o last stage of protein synthesis; follows transcription
o amino acids brought to a ribosome by transfer RNA molecules are linked together within the ribosome in the order specified by the mRNA sequence
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| codon | each triplet of mRNA bases that codes for an amino acid
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| ribosomes | o workbenches of protein synthesis
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| Which process or processes occur in the nucleus? | DNA replication and transcription
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| How is the information that specifies a protein stored in DNA | in the sequence of bases
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| Mendel wanted to make sure his starting plants bred true, meaning the | phenotypes of the offspring in each generation were always the same as the parent
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| What is the term for an observable trait of an organism? | phenotype
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| If a DNA segment has the sequence GCTAA, what RNA sequence will be made from it? | CGAUU
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| Vestigial structures | Leftover structures that are no longer useful
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| Homologous structures | Structures that are similar in different organisms, but have different functions
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| Analogous Structures | Structures that have the same function in different organisms, but do not show common ancestry
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| Genetic Drift | A random event that causes a change in a population: i.e. accidentally stepping on an ant hill
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| Types of natural Selection(Honors only) | Stabilizing, directional, disruptive
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| Ribosome | Where proteins are made
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