Test #2
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| Consciousness | Awareness of external events and internal sensations which occurs under conditions of arousal
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| Awareness | Prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate and association areas; global brain workspace
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| Arousal | Reticular activation system; ways that awareness is regulated: alert vs relaxed/ drowsy
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| Higher level conciousness | Slower, controlled processing, actively focus efforts toward a goal, requires attention. DIFFICULT TO DO OTHER THINGS AT SAME TIME
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| Lower- level conciousness | Automatic processes and daydreaming
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| Automatic processes | Require little attention/ conscious effort. Do not interfere with other ongoing activities
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| Daydreaming | Wandering thought, fantasy, imagination, rumination. Poterntially useful ( reminding, solving)
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| Subconscious awareness | Incubation, parallel processing ( ex. name pops into head after trying to think of it earlier.)
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| Sleep and Dreams | Low levels of consciousness of outside world
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| No awareness | Unconscious (censored) thought- Freud, non conscious processes
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| Theory of Mind | Awareness/ knowledge that people think and have private experiences
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| Individuals with autism | Lack Theory of Mind (also small infants don't have theory of mind)
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| Periodic Physiological Fluctuation | Controlled by biological clocks, annual or seasonal.
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| Circadian Rhythms | 24 hour cycles monitored by suprachlasmatic nucleus
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| Ultradian Rhythms | 90 minute cycles
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| How do you desynchronize the biological clock? | Jet lag, shift- work problems, insomnia
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| How do you reset the biological clock? | Bright light, melatonin (hormone)
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| Beta waves | Alert, high frequency and low amplitude
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| Alpha waves | Relaxed, increase in amplitude, synchronus
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| Stage one | Theta waves, slower frequency and greater amplitude
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| Stage two | Theta waves, sudden increase in wave frequency, sleep spindles
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| Stage three | <50% delta waves, slowest frequency and highest amplitude
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| Stage four | >50% delta waves, difficult to wake sleepers
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| Rapid Eye Movement sleep | Rapid eve movement, dreaming
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| Sleep Stages | 90-100 minutes, change during night. 60%- Stages 1&2 sleep, 20%- Stages 3&4 sleep, 20% REM sleep
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| Reticular Formation | Critical role in sleep and arousal
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| Neurotransmitters with sleep | Serotonin, norepinephrine, and acetylcholine
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| Freud's Psychodynamic Approach | Manifest and latent content
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| Cognitive Theory | Information processing and memory
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| Activation- Synthesis Theory | Brain makes "sense" out of random brain activity orginating in lower brain centers
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| Reward Pathway | Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA), Nucleus Accumbens (NAC), Prefrontal Cortex
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| Depressants | Alcohol, barbiturates, tranquilizers, opiates
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| Stimulants | Caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, cocaine, MDMA (ecstasy)
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| Barbituates | Sleeping pill
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| Tranqilizers | Anxiety reduction
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| Opiates | Narcotics, pain relief
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| Amphetamines | Weight control
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| Cocaine | Local anestheic
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| Hallucinogens | Marijuana, LSD
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| Hypnosis | Altered attention and expectation, Unusual receptiveness to suggestions
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| Hypnosis steps | 1. Distractions are minimized
2. Told to concentrate on something specific
3. Told what to expect
4. Certain obvious events/ feelings are suggested
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| Divided State of Consciousness | Hilgard. Obedient to hypnotist, hidden observer
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| Social Cognitive Behavior | Normal conscious state, social expectation for how to act hypnotized
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| Learning | A systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience
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| Associational Learning | Either Classical or Operant conditioning
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| Classical Conditioning | Stimulus1 associated with stimulus 2
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| Operant Conditioning | Behavior -> Concequences
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| Unconditional Stimulus | Dog smells food
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| Unconditioned Response | Dog salivates
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| Neutral Stimulus | Does not have meaning, bell before
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| Acquisition | How something is learned from neutral to conditioned stimulus
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| Conditioned Stimulus | Sound of Pavlov's bell
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| Unconditioned Response | Dog salivating
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| Contiguity | How long in between conditioned stimulus and unconditional stimulus
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| Contingency | Is CS regularly followed by UCS?
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| Generalization | CR may appear after various NS that are similar to the CS
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| Discrimination | CR appear after the CS but not after other CSs. Learned by presenting other CS without UCS
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| Skinner | Behavior is a function of our consequence
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| Extinction | CR weakened when CS without UCS
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| Spontaneous Recovery | CR reoccurs after a time delay without additional learning
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| Renewal | Recovery of the CR when organism is placed in novel context
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| Watson and Rayner | White rat and loud noise
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| Counterconditioning | Associate CS with new, incompatible CR, CS paired with new USC, adverse conditioning
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| Classical conditioning applications | Placebo effect, immune and endocrine response, taste aversion, advertising, drug habituation
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| Operant Conditioning | Better at explaining voluntary behavior, the consequences of a behavior change the probability of that behavior’s occurrence
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| Thorndike's Law of Effect | Consequence strengthens or weakens as S-R connection
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| B. F. Skinner | Expanded on Thorndike's work. Shaping (reward approximation of desired behavior).
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| Positive Reinforcement | Behavior followed by rewarding consequence. Rewarding stimulus is added.
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| Negative Reinforcement | Behavior followed by rewarding consequence. Aversive (Unpleasant) stimulus is "removed"
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| Avoidance Reinforcement | By avoiding a particular response, certain stimuli is avoided.
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| Learned Helplessness | Sligman, an organism learns it has no control over negative outcomes
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| Primary Reinforcement | Innately satisfying
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| Secondary Reinforcers | Becomes satisfying through experience, repeated association with pre-existing reinforcer. Money or token economy.
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| Generalization | Stimulus "sets the occasion" for the response. Responding occurs to similar stimuli
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| Discrimination | Stimuli signal when behavior will or will not be reinforced
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| Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery | Behavior decreases when reinforcement stops.
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| Ratio | Number of times behavior has to happen before it gets reinforced
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| Interval | Length of time after behavior for reward.
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| Fixed Ratio | Reinforcement follows a set # of behaviors
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| Variable Ratio | Reinforcement follow in unpredictable number of behaviors. Most resistant to extinction
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| Punishment | Punishment decreases behavior.
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| Positive Punishment | Behavior followed by aversive consequence. Unpleasant stimulus is added
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| Negative Punishment | Behavior followed by aversive consequence. Rewarded stimulus is removed
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| Observational Learning | learning occurs when a person observes and imitates behavior (modeling)
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| Albert Bandura | Social Cognitive Theory
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| Four processes of SCT | Attention, Retention, Motor repetition, Reinforcement.
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| Memory | Retention of information or experience over time
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| Three phases of memory | Ecoding, storage, retrieval
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| Encoding types | Automatic vs. effortful encoding
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| Selective Attention | Purposive focus
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| Divided attention | Multitasking, reduces performance
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| Sustained attention | Vigilance
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| Shallow Processing | Physical an perceptual features are analyzed
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| Intermediate Processing | Stimulus is recognized and labeled
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| Deep Processing | Semantic, meaningful, symbolic characteristics are used
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| Elaboration | Creating multiple connections around a stimulus, can enhance memory
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| Dual code hypothesis | (Paivio) Two ways, verbal code and image code
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| Atkinson- Shiffrin Model | Sensory, Short term, and long term memory
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| Explicit Long term memory | Declarative. Two kinds, episodic, semantic
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| Episodic memory | Life's happening
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| Semantic memory | Factual knowledge
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| Implicit long term memory | Non declarative. Procedural memory, classical conditioning,& priming.
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| Procedural memory | Riding a bike
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| Priming | Activation of info already in storage to help remember new information better and faster
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| Parallel distributed processing | Memories are stored throughout the brain in connecting among neurons
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| Serial Position Effect | Tendency to recall items at the beginning and at the end of a series better than those at the middle
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| Herman Ebbinhaus | The bulk of forgetting takes place soon after the learning.
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| Encoding Failure | Information never really got into long term memory
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| Retrieval failure/ interference theory | Proactive and Retroactive
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| Proactive interference | Old material gets in way of new material
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| Retroactive interference | New material gets in way of old material
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| Decay theroy | Passage of time causes forgetting--> does not explain all
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| Tip of the tongue phenomenon | Effortful retrieval ( Some information, but not all)
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| Prospective memory | Remembering to do something in the future (absentmindedness)
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| Anterograde amnesia | Cannot save any new information
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| Retrograde amnesia | Can't retrieve old information
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| Most problems of recall are due to... | interference
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| Cognition | How information is processed and manipulated when remembering, thinking, and knowing.
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| Concepts | Mental categories used to group objects, events, and characteristics
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| Prototype Model | All instances of a concept are compared to a prototype (ideal example) of that concept
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| Fixation | Using a prior strategy only- failure to look at problem from fresh viewpoint
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| Functional fixedness | Fixated on usual functions
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| Inductive reasoning | Driven by data: bottom-up: specific to general
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| Deductive reasoning | Driven by logic: top- down: general to specific
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| System one- Automatic | Rapid, heuristic, intuitive
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| System two- Controlled | Slower, effortful, analytical
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| Conformation bias | Search only for info that supports our ideals
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| Hindsight bias | Report falsely that we predicted an outcome
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| Availability Heuristic | Predict probability based on ease of recall
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| Base rate fallacy | Ignore info about general principles
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| Representativeness Heuristic | Make judgements based on stereotypes
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| Critical thinking | Thinking reflectively and productively and evaluationg evidence
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| Mindfulness | Being alert and mentally present
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| Open- mindedness | Receptive to new ways of looking at things
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| Divergent vs Convergent thinking | Divergent thinking produces many solutions while convergent thinking tries to produce single best solution
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| Intellegence | An all purpose ability to do well on cognitive tasks, solve problems, and learn from experience
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| Binet | Mental Age
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| Stern | Intelligence Quotient
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| Stanford- Binet Test | Normal distribution and other IQ tests (Wechsler)
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| Terman | Socially well adjusted and successful as adults ( not "egg heads")
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| Flynn effect | Scores raise over time
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| Sternberg's Triarchic Theory | Analytical Intelligence, creative intelligence, practical intellegence
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| Howard Gardner's "Frames of Mind" | Verbal, mathematical, spatial, bodily- kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist, existentialist, musical
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| Language | Form of spoken, written, or signed communication based on symbols
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| Infinite Generativity | Ability to produce an endless number of meaningful sentences
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| Phonology | Basic Phonemes (sounds)
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| Morphology | Rules for word formation
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| Syntax | Rules for combining words to form phrases and sentences
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| Semantics | Meaning of words and sentences
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| Pragmatics | Use of language
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| Whorf's linguistic relativity hypothesis | Language determines thought
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| Cognitive Appraisal | A person's interpretation of a situation
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| Coping | Problem Solving
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| Primary Appraisal | Threat or loss
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| Secondary Appraisal | Evaluate Resources
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| Cognitive Reappraisal | Regulating our feelings about experience by reinterpreting it
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