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PSYC
Test #2
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Consciousness | Awareness of external events and internal sensations which occurs under conditions of arousal |
| Awareness | Prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate and association areas; global brain workspace |
| Arousal | Reticular activation system; ways that awareness is regulated: alert vs relaxed/ drowsy |
| Higher level conciousness | Slower, controlled processing, actively focus efforts toward a goal, requires attention. DIFFICULT TO DO OTHER THINGS AT SAME TIME |
| Lower- level conciousness | Automatic processes and daydreaming |
| Automatic processes | Require little attention/ conscious effort. Do not interfere with other ongoing activities |
| Daydreaming | Wandering thought, fantasy, imagination, rumination. Poterntially useful ( reminding, solving) |
| Subconscious awareness | Incubation, parallel processing ( ex. name pops into head after trying to think of it earlier.) |
| Sleep and Dreams | Low levels of consciousness of outside world |
| No awareness | Unconscious (censored) thought- Freud, non conscious processes |
| Theory of Mind | Awareness/ knowledge that people think and have private experiences |
| Individuals with autism | Lack Theory of Mind (also small infants don't have theory of mind) |
| Periodic Physiological Fluctuation | Controlled by biological clocks, annual or seasonal. |
| Circadian Rhythms | 24 hour cycles monitored by suprachlasmatic nucleus |
| Ultradian Rhythms | 90 minute cycles |
| How do you desynchronize the biological clock? | Jet lag, shift- work problems, insomnia |
| How do you reset the biological clock? | Bright light, melatonin (hormone) |
| Beta waves | Alert, high frequency and low amplitude |
| Alpha waves | Relaxed, increase in amplitude, synchronus |
| Stage one | Theta waves, slower frequency and greater amplitude |
| Stage two | Theta waves, sudden increase in wave frequency, sleep spindles |
| Stage three | <50% delta waves, slowest frequency and highest amplitude |
| Stage four | >50% delta waves, difficult to wake sleepers |
| Rapid Eye Movement sleep | Rapid eve movement, dreaming |
| Sleep Stages | 90-100 minutes, change during night. 60%- Stages 1&2 sleep, 20%- Stages 3&4 sleep, 20% REM sleep |
| Reticular Formation | Critical role in sleep and arousal |
| Neurotransmitters with sleep | Serotonin, norepinephrine, and acetylcholine |
| Freud's Psychodynamic Approach | Manifest and latent content |
| Cognitive Theory | Information processing and memory |
| Activation- Synthesis Theory | Brain makes "sense" out of random brain activity orginating in lower brain centers |
| Reward Pathway | Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA), Nucleus Accumbens (NAC), Prefrontal Cortex |
| Depressants | Alcohol, barbiturates, tranquilizers, opiates |
| Stimulants | Caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, cocaine, MDMA (ecstasy) |
| Barbituates | Sleeping pill |
| Tranqilizers | Anxiety reduction |
| Opiates | Narcotics, pain relief |
| Amphetamines | Weight control |
| Cocaine | Local anestheic |
| Hallucinogens | Marijuana, LSD |
| Hypnosis | Altered attention and expectation, Unusual receptiveness to suggestions |
| Hypnosis steps | 1. Distractions are minimized 2. Told to concentrate on something specific 3. Told what to expect 4. Certain obvious events/ feelings are suggested |
| Divided State of Consciousness | Hilgard. Obedient to hypnotist, hidden observer |
| Social Cognitive Behavior | Normal conscious state, social expectation for how to act hypnotized |
| Learning | A systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience |
| Associational Learning | Either Classical or Operant conditioning |
| Classical Conditioning | Stimulus1 associated with stimulus 2 |
| Operant Conditioning | Behavior -> Concequences |
| Unconditional Stimulus | Dog smells food |
| Unconditioned Response | Dog salivates |
| Neutral Stimulus | Does not have meaning, bell before |
| Acquisition | How something is learned from neutral to conditioned stimulus |
| Conditioned Stimulus | Sound of Pavlov's bell |
| Unconditioned Response | Dog salivating |
| Contiguity | How long in between conditioned stimulus and unconditional stimulus |
| Contingency | Is CS regularly followed by UCS? |
| Generalization | CR may appear after various NS that are similar to the CS |
| Discrimination | CR appear after the CS but not after other CSs. Learned by presenting other CS without UCS |
| Skinner | Behavior is a function of our consequence |
| Extinction | CR weakened when CS without UCS |
| Spontaneous Recovery | CR reoccurs after a time delay without additional learning |
| Renewal | Recovery of the CR when organism is placed in novel context |
| Watson and Rayner | White rat and loud noise |
| Counterconditioning | Associate CS with new, incompatible CR, CS paired with new USC, adverse conditioning |
| Classical conditioning applications | Placebo effect, immune and endocrine response, taste aversion, advertising, drug habituation |
| Operant Conditioning | Better at explaining voluntary behavior, the consequences of a behavior change the probability of that behavior’s occurrence |
| Thorndike's Law of Effect | Consequence strengthens or weakens as S-R connection |
| B. F. Skinner | Expanded on Thorndike's work. Shaping (reward approximation of desired behavior). |
| Positive Reinforcement | Behavior followed by rewarding consequence. Rewarding stimulus is added. |
| Negative Reinforcement | Behavior followed by rewarding consequence. Aversive (Unpleasant) stimulus is "removed" |
| Avoidance Reinforcement | By avoiding a particular response, certain stimuli is avoided. |
| Learned Helplessness | Sligman, an organism learns it has no control over negative outcomes |
| Primary Reinforcement | Innately satisfying |
| Secondary Reinforcers | Becomes satisfying through experience, repeated association with pre-existing reinforcer. Money or token economy. |
| Generalization | Stimulus "sets the occasion" for the response. Responding occurs to similar stimuli |
| Discrimination | Stimuli signal when behavior will or will not be reinforced |
| Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery | Behavior decreases when reinforcement stops. |
| Ratio | Number of times behavior has to happen before it gets reinforced |
| Interval | Length of time after behavior for reward. |
| Fixed Ratio | Reinforcement follows a set # of behaviors |
| Variable Ratio | Reinforcement follow in unpredictable number of behaviors. Most resistant to extinction |
| Punishment | Punishment decreases behavior. |
| Positive Punishment | Behavior followed by aversive consequence. Unpleasant stimulus is added |
| Negative Punishment | Behavior followed by aversive consequence. Rewarded stimulus is removed |
| Observational Learning | learning occurs when a person observes and imitates behavior (modeling) |
| Albert Bandura | Social Cognitive Theory |
| Four processes of SCT | Attention, Retention, Motor repetition, Reinforcement. |
| Memory | Retention of information or experience over time |
| Three phases of memory | Ecoding, storage, retrieval |
| Encoding types | Automatic vs. effortful encoding |
| Selective Attention | Purposive focus |
| Divided attention | Multitasking, reduces performance |
| Sustained attention | Vigilance |
| Shallow Processing | Physical an perceptual features are analyzed |
| Intermediate Processing | Stimulus is recognized and labeled |
| Deep Processing | Semantic, meaningful, symbolic characteristics are used |
| Elaboration | Creating multiple connections around a stimulus, can enhance memory |
| Dual code hypothesis | (Paivio) Two ways, verbal code and image code |
| Atkinson- Shiffrin Model | Sensory, Short term, and long term memory |
| Explicit Long term memory | Declarative. Two kinds, episodic, semantic |
| Episodic memory | Life's happening |
| Semantic memory | Factual knowledge |
| Implicit long term memory | Non declarative. Procedural memory, classical conditioning,& priming. |
| Procedural memory | Riding a bike |
| Priming | Activation of info already in storage to help remember new information better and faster |
| Parallel distributed processing | Memories are stored throughout the brain in connecting among neurons |
| Serial Position Effect | Tendency to recall items at the beginning and at the end of a series better than those at the middle |
| Herman Ebbinhaus | The bulk of forgetting takes place soon after the learning. |
| Encoding Failure | Information never really got into long term memory |
| Retrieval failure/ interference theory | Proactive and Retroactive |
| Proactive interference | Old material gets in way of new material |
| Retroactive interference | New material gets in way of old material |
| Decay theroy | Passage of time causes forgetting--> does not explain all |
| Tip of the tongue phenomenon | Effortful retrieval ( Some information, but not all) |
| Prospective memory | Remembering to do something in the future (absentmindedness) |
| Anterograde amnesia | Cannot save any new information |
| Retrograde amnesia | Can't retrieve old information |
| Most problems of recall are due to... | interference |
| Cognition | How information is processed and manipulated when remembering, thinking, and knowing. |
| Concepts | Mental categories used to group objects, events, and characteristics |
| Prototype Model | All instances of a concept are compared to a prototype (ideal example) of that concept |
| Fixation | Using a prior strategy only- failure to look at problem from fresh viewpoint |
| Functional fixedness | Fixated on usual functions |
| Inductive reasoning | Driven by data: bottom-up: specific to general |
| Deductive reasoning | Driven by logic: top- down: general to specific |
| System one- Automatic | Rapid, heuristic, intuitive |
| System two- Controlled | Slower, effortful, analytical |
| Conformation bias | Search only for info that supports our ideals |
| Hindsight bias | Report falsely that we predicted an outcome |
| Availability Heuristic | Predict probability based on ease of recall |
| Base rate fallacy | Ignore info about general principles |
| Representativeness Heuristic | Make judgements based on stereotypes |
| Critical thinking | Thinking reflectively and productively and evaluationg evidence |
| Mindfulness | Being alert and mentally present |
| Open- mindedness | Receptive to new ways of looking at things |
| Divergent vs Convergent thinking | Divergent thinking produces many solutions while convergent thinking tries to produce single best solution |
| Intellegence | An all purpose ability to do well on cognitive tasks, solve problems, and learn from experience |
| Binet | Mental Age |
| Stern | Intelligence Quotient |
| Stanford- Binet Test | Normal distribution and other IQ tests (Wechsler) |
| Terman | Socially well adjusted and successful as adults ( not "egg heads") |
| Flynn effect | Scores raise over time |
| Sternberg's Triarchic Theory | Analytical Intelligence, creative intelligence, practical intellegence |
| Howard Gardner's "Frames of Mind" | Verbal, mathematical, spatial, bodily- kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist, existentialist, musical |
| Language | Form of spoken, written, or signed communication based on symbols |
| Infinite Generativity | Ability to produce an endless number of meaningful sentences |
| Phonology | Basic Phonemes (sounds) |
| Morphology | Rules for word formation |
| Syntax | Rules for combining words to form phrases and sentences |
| Semantics | Meaning of words and sentences |
| Pragmatics | Use of language |
| Whorf's linguistic relativity hypothesis | Language determines thought |
| Cognitive Appraisal | A person's interpretation of a situation |
| Coping | Problem Solving |
| Primary Appraisal | Threat or loss |
| Secondary Appraisal | Evaluate Resources |
| Cognitive Reappraisal | Regulating our feelings about experience by reinterpreting it |
Created by:
tstrange
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