Ch. 7 & Ch. 9
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| tip-of-the tongue phenomenon | when forgotten info feels like it's just out of reach
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| how does info get into memory? | encoding
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| how is info maintained in memory? | storage
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| how is info pulled back out of memory? | retrieval
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| encoding | involves forming a memory code
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| an example of encoding | emphasizing how a word looks, sounds, what it means
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| storage | involves maintaining encoded info in memory over time (info storage is not enough to guarantee that you'll remember something)
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| retrieval | involves recovering info from memory stores
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| what might cause one to forget? | deficiencies in any of the three key processes in memory
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| Attention | involves focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events
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| what is the key issue of locating where the "filter" is? | whether stimuli are screened out early, during sensory input, or late, after the brain has processed the meaning or significance of the input
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| cocktail party phenomenon | crowded party where many conversations are taking place; filtering out the other conversations; if someone in another conversations mentions your name, you may still notice it ("late" selection)
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| Lavie's theory on location of "filter" | idea that the location of the "filter" depends on "cognitive load" of current info processing
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| structural encoding | relatively shadowing processing that emphasizes physical structure of a stimulus
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| example of structural encoding | words flash on a screen; registers how they are printed or the length of the words
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| phonemic encoding | emphasizes what a word sounds like (naming or saying)
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| semantic encoding | emphasizes the meaning of verbal input (thinking about the objects and actions the words represent)
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| levels-of-processing theory | theory proposing that deeper levels of processing result in longer-lasting memory codes (deeper processing leads to enhanced memory)
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| elaboration | linking a stimulus to other info at the time of encoding
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| example of elaboration | you read that phobias are often caused by classical conditioning and apply this idea to your own fear or spider
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| imagery | creation of visual images to represent words (can be used to enrich encoding)
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| example of imagery | juggle; imagine someone juggling balls (concrete object). Truth; much more difficulty forming an image (abstract object)
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| 16 pairs of words theory | high-high (juggler-dress)
high-low (letter-effort)
low-high (duty-hotel)
low-low (quality-necessity)
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| dual-coding theory | theory stating memory is enhanced by forming semantic and visual codes, since either can lead to recall
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| self-referent encoding | describing how or whether info is personally relevant (making material personally meaningful can also enrich encoding)
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| motivation to remember | info perceived to be important; more likely to exert extra effort to attend to (encoding processes can be enhanced by strong motivation)
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| sensory memory | preserves info in its original sensory form for a brief time, usually only a fraction of a second (allows visual patter, sound, or touch to linger for a brief moment after sensory stimulation is over)
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| example of sensory memory | rapidly moving a lighted sparkler or flashlight in circles in the dark (sparklers); preserves image long enough for you to perceive a continuous circle rather than separate points of light
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| short-term memory (STM) | limited capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed info for about 10-20 seconds
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| rehearsal | process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about the info
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| chunking | grouping familiar stimuli stored as a single unit
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| phonological loop | represents all of the STM in earlier models; at work when you use recitation to temporarily hold onto a phone number
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| visuospatial sketchpad | permits people to temporarily hold and manipulate visual images; at work when you try to mentally rearrange the furniture in your room or map out a route to travel somewhere
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| central executive | controls the deployment of attention, switching the focus of attention as needed; coordinates actions of the other module
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| episodic buffer | temporary, limited capacity store that allows the various components of working memory to integrate info; serves as interface between working memory and long-term memory
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| working memory capacity (WMC) | refers to one's ability to hold and manipulate info in conscious attention
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| long-term memory (LTM) | an unlimited capacity store that can hold info over lengthy periods of time
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| flashbulb memories | unusually vivid and detailed recollections of circumstances in which people learned about momentous, newsworthy events
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| clustering | tendency to remember similar or related items in groups
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| conceptual hierarchy | multilevel classification system based on common properties among items
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| schema | an organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event abstracted from a previous experience with the object or event
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| Tuckey and Brewer study | suggests that people are more likely to remember things that are consistent with their schemas than things that aren't
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| Koriat, Goldsmith, and Pansky study | people sometimes exhibit better recall of things that violate their schema-based expectations
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| semantic network | consists of nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways that link related concepts
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| spreading activation | when people think about a word, their thoughts naturally go to related words
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| connectionist models | take inspiration from how neural networks appear to handle info instead of taking their cue from how computers process info (info lies in strengths of connections)
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| parallel distributed processing | simultaneous processing of the same info that's spread across networks of neurons
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| misinformation effect | occurs when participants' recall of an event they witnessed is altered by introducing misleading postevent info
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| reality monitoring | refers to the process of deciding whether memories are based on external sources (one's perception's of actual events) or internal sources (one's thoughts and imaginations)
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| source monitoring | involves making attributions about the origins of memories
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| source-monitoring error | occurs when a memory derived from one source is misattributed to another source
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| destination memory | involves recalling from whom one was told what
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| retention | refers to proportion of material retained (remembered)
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| recall | measure of retention requires subjects to reproduce info to their own without any cues
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| recognition | measure of retention requires to select previously learned info form an array of options
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| relearning | measure of retention requires a subject to memorize info a second time to determine how much time or how much practice trials are saved by having learned it before
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| pseudoforgetting | can't really forget something you never learned; lack of attention
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| decay theory | theory that proposes that forgetting occurs because memory traces fade with time
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| interference theory | theory that proposes that people forget info because of competition from other material (2 kinds)
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| retroactive interference | occurs when new info impairs the retention of previously learned info
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| proactive interference | occurs when previously learned info interferes with retention of new info
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| encoding specificity principle | idea that value of a retrieval cue depends on how well it corresponds to the memory code
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| transfer-appropriate processing | occurs when the initial processing of info is similar to the type of processing required by the subsequent measure of retention
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| repression | refers to keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious
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| long-term potentiation (LTP) | a long lasting increase in neural excitability at synapses along a specific neural pathway
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| retrograde amnesia | involves the loss of memories for events that occurred prior to the onset of amnesia
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| anterograde amnesia | involves the loss of memories for events that occur after the onset of amnesia
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| consolidation | hypothetical process involving the gradual conversion of info into durable memory codes stores in long-term memory
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| declarative memory system | handles factual info (definitions)
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| nondeclarative memory system | houses memory for actions, skills, conditioned responses, and emotional responses (motor skills)
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| episodic memory system | made up on chronological, or temporally dated, recollection of personal experiences
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| semantic memory system | contain general knowledge that is not tied to the time when the info was learned
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| prospective memory | involves remembering to perform actions in the future
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| retrospective memory | involves remembering events from the past or previously learned info
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| mnemonic devices | strategies for enhancing memory
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| overlearning | continued rehearsal of material after you appear to have mastered it
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| serial position effect | occurs when subjects show better recall for items at the beginning and end of a list than for items in the middle
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| link method | involves forming a mental image of items to be remembered in a way that links them together
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| method of Loci | involves taking an imaginary walk along a familiar path where images of items to be remembered are associated with certain locations
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