Chapters 1-3
Quiz yourself by thinking what should be in
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| Anatomy | the scientific discipline that investigates the body's structure
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| Cytology | examines the structural features of cells
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| Histology | the study of tissues and the materials surrounding them
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| gross anatomy | the study of structures that can be examined without the aid of a microscope
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| anatomic imaging | involves the use of x-rays, ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging, and other technologies to create pictures of internal structures
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| physiology | the scientific investigation of the processes or functions of living things
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| organelle | a small structure contained within a cell that performs one or more specific functions
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| cell | the basic living units of all plants and animals
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| tissue | a group of cells with similar structure and function that have extracellular substances located between them
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| organs | composed of 2 or more tissue types that perform one or more common functions
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| organism | any living thing considered as a whole
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| metabolism | ability to use energy to perform vital functions, such as growth, movement, and reproduction
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| differentiation | changes in cell structure and function from generalized to specialized
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| reproduction | the formation of new cells or new organisms
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| homeostasis | the existence and maintenance of a relatively constant environment within the body
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| variables | conditions with values that can change
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| set point | the ideal normal value
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| negative feedback | any deviation from the set point is made smaller or resisted
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| 3 components of negative feedback system | receptor
control center
effector
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| receptor | monitors the value of some variable
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| control center | establishes the set point around which the variable is maintained
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| effector | can change the value of the variable
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| deviation from set point is called? | stimulus
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| positive feedback | when a deviation from normal value occurs, the responds of the system is to make the deviation even greater
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| 3 cavities of the trunk: | thoracic
abdominal
pelvic
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| thoracic cavity | surrounded by the rib cage and separated from the abdominal cavity by a muscular diaphragm
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| abdominal cavity | bound by the abdominal muscles and contains stomach, intestines, liver, spleen, pancreas, and kidneys
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| pelvic cavity | a small space enclosed by the bones of the pelvis and contains the urinary bladder, part of the large intestine, and the internal reproductive organs
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| serous membranes | cover the organs of the trunk and line the trunk cavities
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| visceral serous membranes | cover the organs of the trunk
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| parietal serous membranes | lines the trunk cavity
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| 3 serous membranes of thoracic cavity: | 1-pericardial
2,3-pleural cavities
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| pericardial cavity | surrounds the heart
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| pleural cavity | surrounds lungs
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| peritoneal cavity | serous membrane lined cavity in the abdominopelvic cavity
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| superior | higher, a structure above another
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| inferior | lower, a structure below another
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| cephalic | closer to the head than another structure
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| caudal | closer to the tail than another structure
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| anterior | the front of the body
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| posterior | the back of the body
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| ventral | toward the belly
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| dorsal | toward the back
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| proximal | closer to the point of attachment to the body than another structure
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| distal | farther from the point of attachment to the body than another structure
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| lateral | away from the midline of the body
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| medial | toward the midline of the body
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| superficial | toward or on the surface
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| deep | away from the surface, interal
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| matter | anything that occupies space and has mass
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| element | the simplest type of matter with unique chemical properties
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| atom | the smallest particle of an element that has the chemical characteristics of that element
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| atomic number | the number of protons in each atom of an element
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| mass number | the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in each atom of an element
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| isotopes | 2 or more forms of the same element that have the same number of protons and electrons, but a different number of neutrons
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| ion | a charged particle formed when an atom loses or gains electrons and the number of protons and electrons is no longer equal
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| cations | positively charged ions
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| anions | negatively charged ions
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| chemical bonding | occurs when the outermost electrons are transferred or shared between atoms
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| 3 categories of chemical bonds | ionic bond
covalent bond
metallic bond
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| ionic bond | complete transfer of electrons between 2 atoms
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| covalent bond | when atoms share one or more pairs of electrons
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| metallic bond | the outermost electrons are shared equally among all the atoms in the sample
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| most common type of chemical bond? | covalent bond
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| chemical reactions | atoms, ions, molecules, or compounds interact either to form or break chemical bonds
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| reactants | the substances that enter into a chemical reaction
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| products | the substances that result from the chemical reaction
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| synthesis reactions | when 2 or more reactants chemically combine to form a new and larger product
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| dehydration reactions | synthesis reactions in which water is a product
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| decomposition reactions | a larger reactant is broken down into 2 or more smaller products
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| hydrolysis reactions | reactions that use water to split the reactant into 2 parts
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| anabolism | synthesis reactions that occur in the body. Growth, maintenance, and repair of the body cannot take place without anabolic reactions
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| catabolism | decomposition reactions that occur within the body. Examples are the digestion of food molecules and breakdown of fat stores.
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| Factors that influence the rate of chemical reactions: | 1-how easily the substances REACT with one another
2-the CONCENTRATION of the reactants
3-TEMPERATURE
4-presence of a CATALYST
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| catalyst | a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself being permanently changed or depleted
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| enzyme | an organic catalyst of biologic origin
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| energy | the capacity to do work
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| potential energy | stored energy that could do work, but is not doing so
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| kinetic energy | the form of energy that actually does work
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| electric energy | involves the movement of ions or electrons// a flow of electrons
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| chemical energy | energy that's locked up in chemical bonds // results from the relative positions and interactions among a substance's subatomic particles
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| mechanical energy | energy resulting from the position or movement of an object
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| heat | the energy that flows between objects that are at different temperatures.
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| All forms of energy can be converted into | heat energy
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| inorganic chemistry | deals with those substances that do not contain carbon
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| organic chemistry | the study of carbon-containing substances
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| 2/3 of our body is | water
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| The plasma portion of blood is _% water? | 92
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| acid | a proton donor
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| base | a proton acceptor
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| ph scale | the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution
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| OH- | hydroxyl ion
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| H+ | hydrogen ion
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| H+ concentration increases as substances are more ___ | acidic
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| OH- increases as substances are more | alkaline
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| ph scale is not linear, it is__ | logarithmic
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| pH of hydrochloric acid (HCl) | 0
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| pH of stomach acid | 1
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| ph of lemon juice | 2
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| ph of vinegar, cola, or beer | 3
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| ph of tomatoes | 4
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| ph of black coffee | 5
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| ph of urine | 6
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| ph of saliva | 6.5
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| ph of water | 7
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| ph of blood | 7.4
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| ph of seawater | 8
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| ph of baking soda | 9
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| ph of Great Salt Lake | 10
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| ph of household ammonia | 11
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| ph of soda ash | 12
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| ph of oven cleaner | 13
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| ph of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) | 14
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| salt | compounds formed by the interaction of an acid and base in which the hydrogen ions of the acid are replaced by the positive ions of the base (ex-HCl+NaOH=NaCl)
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| Buffer | compounds that resist changes in solution ph when either acids or bases are added//donate or accept protons to keep ph the same
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| carbohydrate | made primarily from carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms and sued for quick energy and short term energy storage
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| monosaccharides | "one sugar", the building blocks of larger carbohydrates
ex-glucose
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| disaccharides | composed of 2 simple sugars bound together through a dehydration reaction
ex-sucrose=glucose+fructose
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| polysacchardies | many monosaccharide units bound together to make long chains.
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| glycogen | polysaccharide found in animals
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| polysaccharides found in plants | starch and cellulose
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| isomers | molecules that have the same number and types of atoms but differ in their 3 dimensional arrangement
ex-glucose, fructose, and galactose are all C6H12O6
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| lipids | structures such as fats and oils, they do not dissolve in water
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| fatty acids | consist of a straight chain of carbon atoms with a carboxyl attached at one end
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| glycerol | a three carbon molecule with a hydroxyl group attached to each carbon
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| triacylglycerols are also called | triglycerides
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| what constitutes 95% of the fats in the human body | triglycerides
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| saturated fatty acids | contain only single covalent bonds between the carbon atoms, fully hydrogenated
ex-butter, lard
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| carbon always has how many bonds? | 4
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| unsaturated fats | contain 1 or more double covalent bonds between the carbon atoms
ex-olive oil, corn oil
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| double bonds make molecules more __ and more like a __ | flexible, liquid
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| phospholipids | similar to triglycerides, except that one of the fatty acids bound to the glycerol is replaced by a molecule containing phosphate
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| __ are important compononts of cell membranes | phospholipids
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| _ have a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail | phospholipids
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| steroids | lipids that have a structure that differs entirely from that of fats
ex-cholesterol, estrogen, testosterone
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| proteins | contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen bound together by covalent bonds.
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| most proteins contain some __ | sulfur
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| amino acids | the building blocks of proteins
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| Protein Structure names | 1-Primary
2-Secondary
3-Tertiary
4-Quaternary
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| Primary Structure of protein | determined by the SEQUENCE of amino acids bound by peptide bonds
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| Secondary structure of proteins | results from FOLDING/BENDING of the polypeptide chain caused by hydrogen bonds between amino acids
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| 2 common shapes of folded polypeptide chains | helices and pleated sheets
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| tertiary structure | folding of the helices or pleated sheets
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| quarternary structure | refers to the spatial relationship between protein subunits, when 2 or more proteins associate
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| active site | the specific site where reactants must bind to the enzyme
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| cofactors | non-protein substances that some enzymes require to be functional
ex-magnesium & zinc ions and organic molecules
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| coenzymes | organic molecules such as vitamins required to make certain enzymes functional
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| lipase | catalyzes the breakdown of lipids
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| protease | an enzyme that breaks down protein
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| DNA | the genetic information of cells
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| RNA | the 3 types of RNA play impoortant roles in protein synthesis
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| 2 types of nucleic acids: | deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
ribonucleic acid (RNA)
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| Who discovered DNA? | Watson & Crick
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| When was DNA discovered? | 1952
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| What book did Watson & Crick write? | " The Double Helix "
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| nucleotides | the basic building blocks of nucleic acids
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| components of nucleotides: | monosaccharides (pentose sugar)
nitrogenous base
phosphate group
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| nitrogenous bases | purines & pyrimidines
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| purines | guanine & adenine
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| pyrimidines | cytosine, thymine, and uracil
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| ATP consists of: | adenine
ribose sugar
3 phosphate groups
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| ATP is capable of storing and providing ___ | energy
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| Calcium (Ca2+) | part of bones and teeth; functions in blood clotting, muscle contraction, release of neurotransmitters
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| Sodium (Na+) | membrane potentials, water balance
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| potassium (K+) | membrane potentials
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| hydrogen (H+) | acid-base balance
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| hydroxide (OH-) | acid-base balance
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| Chloride (Cl-) | water balance
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| bicarbonate (HCO3-) | acid-base balance
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| ammonium (NH4+) | acid-base balance
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| phosphate (PO43-) | part of bones and teeth; functions in energy exchange, acid-base balance
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| Iron (Fe2+) | red blood cell formation
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| Magnesium (Mg2+) | necessary for enzymes
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| Iodide (I-) | present in thyroid hormones
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| light microscopes | allow us to visualize general features of cells
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| electron microscope | used to study the fine structure of cells, much higher magnification
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| 2 kinds of electron miscroscopes | 1-scanning electron microscope (SEM)
2-transmission electron miscroscope (TEM)
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| scanning electron microscope | allows us to see the features of the CELL SURFACE and the SURFACES of internal structures
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| transmission electron microscope | allows us to see THROUGH parts of the cell and discover other aspects of cell structures
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| plasma membrane | the outermost component of the cell, composed of a bilayer of phospholipids and cholesterol with proteins floating in the membrane
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| channel proteins | one or more integral proteins arranged so that they form a tiny channel through the plasma membrane
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| receptor molecules | proteins in the cell membrane with an exposed binding site on the outer cell surface
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| marker molecules | cell surface molecules that allow cells to identify and attach to each other. These are mostly glycoproteins and glycolipids
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| cytoplasm- | the cellular material outside the nucleus but inside the plasma membrane, it is about 1/2 cytosol and 1/2 organelles
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| cytosol consists of: | fluid
cytoskeletal
cytoplasmic inclusions
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| fluid portion of cytosol | a solution with dissolved ions, molecules, and a colloid with suspended molecules, mostly proteins. many of these proteins are enzymes
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| cytoskeletal portion of cytosol | supports the cell and holds the nucleus and organelles in placea
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| cytoplasmic inclusions | aggregates of chemicals either produced by the cell or taken in by the cell, ex: glycogen, hemoglobin
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| organelles | small structures on the inside of the cell that are specialized for particular functions.
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| most organelles have double membranes that are similar to the | plasma membrane
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| the number and type of organelles within each cell are related to | the specific structure and function of that cell
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| nucleus (fx) | control center of the cell; DNA within the nucleus regulates protein synthesis and therefore the chemical reactions of the cell
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| ribosome (fx) | serves as site of protein synthesis
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| rough endoplasmic reticulum (fx) | synthesizes proteins and transports them to Golgi apparatus
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| smooth endoplasmic reticulum (fx) | manufactures lipids and carbohydrates, detoxifies harmful substances, stores calcium
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| golgi apparatus (fx) | modifies, packages, and distributes proteins and lipids for secretion or internal use
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| mitochondria (fx) | major sites of atp synthesis when oxygen is available
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| nucleus- | enclosed by nuclear envelope, double membrane with nuclear pores, contains chromatin, DNA, and associated proteins
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| ribosome | ribosomal RNA and proteins form large and small subunits; some are attached to ER whereas others are distributed through cytoplasm
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| RER | membranous tubules and flattened sacs with attached ribosomes
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| SER | membranous tubules and flattened sacs with no attached ribosomes
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| golgi apparatus | flattened membrane sacs stacked on each other
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| mitochondria | spherical, rod-shaped, or threadlike structures;enclosed by double membrane; inner membrane forms projections called cristae, open space called matrix
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| centrioles | pair of cylindrical organelles in the centrosome, consisting of triplets of parallel microtubules
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| centrioles (fx) | serve as centers for microtubule formation; determine cell polarity during cell division; form the basal bodies of cilia and flagella
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| cilia | extensions of the plasma membrane containing doublets of parallel microtubules, 10 microns in length
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| cilia (fx) | move materials over the surface of cells
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| flagellum | extension of the plasma membrane containing doublets of parallel microtubules; 55 microns in length
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| flagellum (fx) | propels sperm
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| microvilli | extension of the plasma membrane containing microfilaments
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| microvilli (fx) | increase surface area of the plasma membrane for absorption and secretion; modified to form sensory receptors
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| 4 ways that substances can cross the plasma membrane | 1-directly through lipid bilayer
2-through membrane channels
3-with carrier molecules in the membrane
4-in vesicles
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| diffusion | the tendency for solute molecules to move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration
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| mediated transport mechanisms | involve carrier molecules within the plasma membrane that move large water soluble molecules or electrically charged molecules across the plasma membrane
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| active transport | a carrier mediated process that requires energy provided by ATP
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| endocytosis | refers to the bulk of uptake of material through the plasma membrane by the formation of a vesicle
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| pinocytosis | uptake of liquid by a cell
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| phagocytosis | "cell eating" - when solid particles are ingested and phagocytic vesicles are formed
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| exocytosis | secretory vesicles move to the plasma membrane and the contents of the vesicle are expelled from the cell
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| every three nucleotides is called a __ | triplet code
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| a triplet code is a code for an | amino acid
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| __ are the building blocks of proteins | amino acids
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| 2 steps in protein synthesis | transcription
translation
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| transcription - | synthesis of mRNA on the basis of sequence of nucleotides in DNA
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| translation | the synthesis of a protein at the ribosome in respond to the codons of mRNA
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| 3 types of RNA | messenger
transfer
ribosomal
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| messenger RNA | a copy of the code to make a protein. It travels from the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
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| transfer RNA | carries amino acids to the ribosome so they can be assembled into proteins
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| ribosomal RNA | rna that is associated with certain proteins to form ribosomes
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| DNA replication occurs during | INTERPHASE
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| Cystic fibrosis is a genetic disorder that affects ___ | chloride ion channels
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| how many types of cystic fibrosis? | 3
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| In about 70% of CF cases, | a defective channel protein fails to reach the plasma membrane from its site of production inside the cell
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| in 30% cases | the channel protein is incorporated into the plasma membrane but does not functional normally or ATP binds to the channel protein but the channel does not open
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| affected cells of CF___ | produce thick, viscous secretions
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| CF affects many cell types, but most profound effects are in the __ & __ | pancrease, lungs
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| In the CF pancreas, | thick secretions block the release of digestive enzymes, resulting in an inability to digest certain types of food and sometimes leading to pancreatitis
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| In the CF lungs, | thick secretions block airways, making breathing difficult
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| x-rays |
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| radiograph |
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| ultrasound |
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| sonogram | ultrasound image
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| computed tomographic scan (CT) |
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| dynamic spatial reconstruction (DSR) |
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| digital subtraction angiography (DSA) |
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| magnetic resonance imaging |
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| positron emission tomographic scan (PET) |
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