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A&P 1-Lecture Test 1
Chapters 1-3
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Anatomy | the scientific discipline that investigates the body's structure |
| Cytology | examines the structural features of cells |
| Histology | the study of tissues and the materials surrounding them |
| gross anatomy | the study of structures that can be examined without the aid of a microscope |
| anatomic imaging | involves the use of x-rays, ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging, and other technologies to create pictures of internal structures |
| physiology | the scientific investigation of the processes or functions of living things |
| organelle | a small structure contained within a cell that performs one or more specific functions |
| cell | the basic living units of all plants and animals |
| tissue | a group of cells with similar structure and function that have extracellular substances located between them |
| organs | composed of 2 or more tissue types that perform one or more common functions |
| organism | any living thing considered as a whole |
| metabolism | ability to use energy to perform vital functions, such as growth, movement, and reproduction |
| differentiation | changes in cell structure and function from generalized to specialized |
| reproduction | the formation of new cells or new organisms |
| homeostasis | the existence and maintenance of a relatively constant environment within the body |
| variables | conditions with values that can change |
| set point | the ideal normal value |
| negative feedback | any deviation from the set point is made smaller or resisted |
| 3 components of negative feedback system | receptor control center effector |
| receptor | monitors the value of some variable |
| control center | establishes the set point around which the variable is maintained |
| effector | can change the value of the variable |
| deviation from set point is called? | stimulus |
| positive feedback | when a deviation from normal value occurs, the responds of the system is to make the deviation even greater |
| 3 cavities of the trunk: | thoracic abdominal pelvic |
| thoracic cavity | surrounded by the rib cage and separated from the abdominal cavity by a muscular diaphragm |
| abdominal cavity | bound by the abdominal muscles and contains stomach, intestines, liver, spleen, pancreas, and kidneys |
| pelvic cavity | a small space enclosed by the bones of the pelvis and contains the urinary bladder, part of the large intestine, and the internal reproductive organs |
| serous membranes | cover the organs of the trunk and line the trunk cavities |
| visceral serous membranes | cover the organs of the trunk |
| parietal serous membranes | lines the trunk cavity |
| 3 serous membranes of thoracic cavity: | 1-pericardial 2,3-pleural cavities |
| pericardial cavity | surrounds the heart |
| pleural cavity | surrounds lungs |
| peritoneal cavity | serous membrane lined cavity in the abdominopelvic cavity |
| superior | higher, a structure above another |
| inferior | lower, a structure below another |
| cephalic | closer to the head than another structure |
| caudal | closer to the tail than another structure |
| anterior | the front of the body |
| posterior | the back of the body |
| ventral | toward the belly |
| dorsal | toward the back |
| proximal | closer to the point of attachment to the body than another structure |
| distal | farther from the point of attachment to the body than another structure |
| lateral | away from the midline of the body |
| medial | toward the midline of the body |
| superficial | toward or on the surface |
| deep | away from the surface, interal |
| matter | anything that occupies space and has mass |
| element | the simplest type of matter with unique chemical properties |
| atom | the smallest particle of an element that has the chemical characteristics of that element |
| atomic number | the number of protons in each atom of an element |
| mass number | the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in each atom of an element |
| isotopes | 2 or more forms of the same element that have the same number of protons and electrons, but a different number of neutrons |
| ion | a charged particle formed when an atom loses or gains electrons and the number of protons and electrons is no longer equal |
| cations | positively charged ions |
| anions | negatively charged ions |
| chemical bonding | occurs when the outermost electrons are transferred or shared between atoms |
| 3 categories of chemical bonds | ionic bond covalent bond metallic bond |
| ionic bond | complete transfer of electrons between 2 atoms |
| covalent bond | when atoms share one or more pairs of electrons |
| metallic bond | the outermost electrons are shared equally among all the atoms in the sample |
| most common type of chemical bond? | covalent bond |
| chemical reactions | atoms, ions, molecules, or compounds interact either to form or break chemical bonds |
| reactants | the substances that enter into a chemical reaction |
| products | the substances that result from the chemical reaction |
| synthesis reactions | when 2 or more reactants chemically combine to form a new and larger product |
| dehydration reactions | synthesis reactions in which water is a product |
| decomposition reactions | a larger reactant is broken down into 2 or more smaller products |
| hydrolysis reactions | reactions that use water to split the reactant into 2 parts |
| anabolism | synthesis reactions that occur in the body. Growth, maintenance, and repair of the body cannot take place without anabolic reactions |
| catabolism | decomposition reactions that occur within the body. Examples are the digestion of food molecules and breakdown of fat stores. |
| Factors that influence the rate of chemical reactions: | 1-how easily the substances REACT with one another 2-the CONCENTRATION of the reactants 3-TEMPERATURE 4-presence of a CATALYST |
| catalyst | a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself being permanently changed or depleted |
| enzyme | an organic catalyst of biologic origin |
| energy | the capacity to do work |
| potential energy | stored energy that could do work, but is not doing so |
| kinetic energy | the form of energy that actually does work |
| electric energy | involves the movement of ions or electrons// a flow of electrons |
| chemical energy | energy that's locked up in chemical bonds // results from the relative positions and interactions among a substance's subatomic particles |
| mechanical energy | energy resulting from the position or movement of an object |
| heat | the energy that flows between objects that are at different temperatures. |
| All forms of energy can be converted into | heat energy |
| inorganic chemistry | deals with those substances that do not contain carbon |
| organic chemistry | the study of carbon-containing substances |
| 2/3 of our body is | water |
| The plasma portion of blood is _% water? | 92 |
| acid | a proton donor |
| base | a proton acceptor |
| ph scale | the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution |
| OH- | hydroxyl ion |
| H+ | hydrogen ion |
| H+ concentration increases as substances are more ___ | acidic |
| OH- increases as substances are more | alkaline |
| ph scale is not linear, it is__ | logarithmic |
| pH of hydrochloric acid (HCl) | 0 |
| pH of stomach acid | 1 |
| ph of lemon juice | 2 |
| ph of vinegar, cola, or beer | 3 |
| ph of tomatoes | 4 |
| ph of black coffee | 5 |
| ph of urine | 6 |
| ph of saliva | 6.5 |
| ph of water | 7 |
| ph of blood | 7.4 |
| ph of seawater | 8 |
| ph of baking soda | 9 |
| ph of Great Salt Lake | 10 |
| ph of household ammonia | 11 |
| ph of soda ash | 12 |
| ph of oven cleaner | 13 |
| ph of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) | 14 |
| salt | compounds formed by the interaction of an acid and base in which the hydrogen ions of the acid are replaced by the positive ions of the base (ex-HCl+NaOH=NaCl) |
| Buffer | compounds that resist changes in solution ph when either acids or bases are added//donate or accept protons to keep ph the same |
| carbohydrate | made primarily from carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms and sued for quick energy and short term energy storage |
| monosaccharides | "one sugar", the building blocks of larger carbohydrates ex-glucose |
| disaccharides | composed of 2 simple sugars bound together through a dehydration reaction ex-sucrose=glucose+fructose |
| polysacchardies | many monosaccharide units bound together to make long chains. |
| glycogen | polysaccharide found in animals |
| polysaccharides found in plants | starch and cellulose |
| isomers | molecules that have the same number and types of atoms but differ in their 3 dimensional arrangement ex-glucose, fructose, and galactose are all C6H12O6 |
| lipids | structures such as fats and oils, they do not dissolve in water |
| fatty acids | consist of a straight chain of carbon atoms with a carboxyl attached at one end |
| glycerol | a three carbon molecule with a hydroxyl group attached to each carbon |
| triacylglycerols are also called | triglycerides |
| what constitutes 95% of the fats in the human body | triglycerides |
| saturated fatty acids | contain only single covalent bonds between the carbon atoms, fully hydrogenated ex-butter, lard |
| carbon always has how many bonds? | 4 |
| unsaturated fats | contain 1 or more double covalent bonds between the carbon atoms ex-olive oil, corn oil |
| double bonds make molecules more __ and more like a __ | flexible, liquid |
| phospholipids | similar to triglycerides, except that one of the fatty acids bound to the glycerol is replaced by a molecule containing phosphate |
| __ are important compononts of cell membranes | phospholipids |
| _ have a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail | phospholipids |
| steroids | lipids that have a structure that differs entirely from that of fats ex-cholesterol, estrogen, testosterone |
| proteins | contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen bound together by covalent bonds. |
| most proteins contain some __ | sulfur |
| amino acids | the building blocks of proteins |
| Protein Structure names | 1-Primary 2-Secondary 3-Tertiary 4-Quaternary |
| Primary Structure of protein | determined by the SEQUENCE of amino acids bound by peptide bonds |
| Secondary structure of proteins | results from FOLDING/BENDING of the polypeptide chain caused by hydrogen bonds between amino acids |
| 2 common shapes of folded polypeptide chains | helices and pleated sheets |
| tertiary structure | folding of the helices or pleated sheets |
| quarternary structure | refers to the spatial relationship between protein subunits, when 2 or more proteins associate |
| active site | the specific site where reactants must bind to the enzyme |
| cofactors | non-protein substances that some enzymes require to be functional ex-magnesium & zinc ions and organic molecules |
| coenzymes | organic molecules such as vitamins required to make certain enzymes functional |
| lipase | catalyzes the breakdown of lipids |
| protease | an enzyme that breaks down protein |
| DNA | the genetic information of cells |
| RNA | the 3 types of RNA play impoortant roles in protein synthesis |
| 2 types of nucleic acids: | deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) ribonucleic acid (RNA) |
| Who discovered DNA? | Watson & Crick |
| When was DNA discovered? | 1952 |
| What book did Watson & Crick write? | " The Double Helix " |
| nucleotides | the basic building blocks of nucleic acids |
| components of nucleotides: | monosaccharides (pentose sugar) nitrogenous base phosphate group |
| nitrogenous bases | purines & pyrimidines |
| purines | guanine & adenine |
| pyrimidines | cytosine, thymine, and uracil |
| ATP consists of: | adenine ribose sugar 3 phosphate groups |
| ATP is capable of storing and providing ___ | energy |
| Calcium (Ca2+) | part of bones and teeth; functions in blood clotting, muscle contraction, release of neurotransmitters |
| Sodium (Na+) | membrane potentials, water balance |
| potassium (K+) | membrane potentials |
| hydrogen (H+) | acid-base balance |
| hydroxide (OH-) | acid-base balance |
| Chloride (Cl-) | water balance |
| bicarbonate (HCO3-) | acid-base balance |
| ammonium (NH4+) | acid-base balance |
| phosphate (PO43-) | part of bones and teeth; functions in energy exchange, acid-base balance |
| Iron (Fe2+) | red blood cell formation |
| Magnesium (Mg2+) | necessary for enzymes |
| Iodide (I-) | present in thyroid hormones |
| light microscopes | allow us to visualize general features of cells |
| electron microscope | used to study the fine structure of cells, much higher magnification |
| 2 kinds of electron miscroscopes | 1-scanning electron microscope (SEM) 2-transmission electron miscroscope (TEM) |
| scanning electron microscope | allows us to see the features of the CELL SURFACE and the SURFACES of internal structures |
| transmission electron microscope | allows us to see THROUGH parts of the cell and discover other aspects of cell structures |
| plasma membrane | the outermost component of the cell, composed of a bilayer of phospholipids and cholesterol with proteins floating in the membrane |
| channel proteins | one or more integral proteins arranged so that they form a tiny channel through the plasma membrane |
| receptor molecules | proteins in the cell membrane with an exposed binding site on the outer cell surface |
| marker molecules | cell surface molecules that allow cells to identify and attach to each other. These are mostly glycoproteins and glycolipids |
| cytoplasm- | the cellular material outside the nucleus but inside the plasma membrane, it is about 1/2 cytosol and 1/2 organelles |
| cytosol consists of: | fluid cytoskeletal cytoplasmic inclusions |
| fluid portion of cytosol | a solution with dissolved ions, molecules, and a colloid with suspended molecules, mostly proteins. many of these proteins are enzymes |
| cytoskeletal portion of cytosol | supports the cell and holds the nucleus and organelles in placea |
| cytoplasmic inclusions | aggregates of chemicals either produced by the cell or taken in by the cell, ex: glycogen, hemoglobin |
| organelles | small structures on the inside of the cell that are specialized for particular functions. |
| most organelles have double membranes that are similar to the | plasma membrane |
| the number and type of organelles within each cell are related to | the specific structure and function of that cell |
| nucleus (fx) | control center of the cell; DNA within the nucleus regulates protein synthesis and therefore the chemical reactions of the cell |
| ribosome (fx) | serves as site of protein synthesis |
| rough endoplasmic reticulum (fx) | synthesizes proteins and transports them to Golgi apparatus |
| smooth endoplasmic reticulum (fx) | manufactures lipids and carbohydrates, detoxifies harmful substances, stores calcium |
| golgi apparatus (fx) | modifies, packages, and distributes proteins and lipids for secretion or internal use |
| mitochondria (fx) | major sites of atp synthesis when oxygen is available |
| nucleus- | enclosed by nuclear envelope, double membrane with nuclear pores, contains chromatin, DNA, and associated proteins |
| ribosome | ribosomal RNA and proteins form large and small subunits; some are attached to ER whereas others are distributed through cytoplasm |
| RER | membranous tubules and flattened sacs with attached ribosomes |
| SER | membranous tubules and flattened sacs with no attached ribosomes |
| golgi apparatus | flattened membrane sacs stacked on each other |
| mitochondria | spherical, rod-shaped, or threadlike structures;enclosed by double membrane; inner membrane forms projections called cristae, open space called matrix |
| centrioles | pair of cylindrical organelles in the centrosome, consisting of triplets of parallel microtubules |
| centrioles (fx) | serve as centers for microtubule formation; determine cell polarity during cell division; form the basal bodies of cilia and flagella |
| cilia | extensions of the plasma membrane containing doublets of parallel microtubules, 10 microns in length |
| cilia (fx) | move materials over the surface of cells |
| flagellum | extension of the plasma membrane containing doublets of parallel microtubules; 55 microns in length |
| flagellum (fx) | propels sperm |
| microvilli | extension of the plasma membrane containing microfilaments |
| microvilli (fx) | increase surface area of the plasma membrane for absorption and secretion; modified to form sensory receptors |
| 4 ways that substances can cross the plasma membrane | 1-directly through lipid bilayer 2-through membrane channels 3-with carrier molecules in the membrane 4-in vesicles |
| diffusion | the tendency for solute molecules to move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration |
| mediated transport mechanisms | involve carrier molecules within the plasma membrane that move large water soluble molecules or electrically charged molecules across the plasma membrane |
| active transport | a carrier mediated process that requires energy provided by ATP |
| endocytosis | refers to the bulk of uptake of material through the plasma membrane by the formation of a vesicle |
| pinocytosis | uptake of liquid by a cell |
| phagocytosis | "cell eating" - when solid particles are ingested and phagocytic vesicles are formed |
| exocytosis | secretory vesicles move to the plasma membrane and the contents of the vesicle are expelled from the cell |
| every three nucleotides is called a __ | triplet code |
| a triplet code is a code for an | amino acid |
| __ are the building blocks of proteins | amino acids |
| 2 steps in protein synthesis | transcription translation |
| transcription - | synthesis of mRNA on the basis of sequence of nucleotides in DNA |
| translation | the synthesis of a protein at the ribosome in respond to the codons of mRNA |
| 3 types of RNA | messenger transfer ribosomal |
| messenger RNA | a copy of the code to make a protein. It travels from the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm. |
| transfer RNA | carries amino acids to the ribosome so they can be assembled into proteins |
| ribosomal RNA | rna that is associated with certain proteins to form ribosomes |
| DNA replication occurs during | INTERPHASE |
| Cystic fibrosis is a genetic disorder that affects ___ | chloride ion channels |
| how many types of cystic fibrosis? | 3 |
| In about 70% of CF cases, | a defective channel protein fails to reach the plasma membrane from its site of production inside the cell |
| in 30% cases | the channel protein is incorporated into the plasma membrane but does not functional normally or ATP binds to the channel protein but the channel does not open |
| affected cells of CF___ | produce thick, viscous secretions |
| CF affects many cell types, but most profound effects are in the __ & __ | pancrease, lungs |
| In the CF pancreas, | thick secretions block the release of digestive enzymes, resulting in an inability to digest certain types of food and sometimes leading to pancreatitis |
| In the CF lungs, | thick secretions block airways, making breathing difficult |
| x-rays | |
| radiograph | |
| ultrasound | |
| sonogram | ultrasound image |
| computed tomographic scan (CT) | |
| dynamic spatial reconstruction (DSR) | |
| digital subtraction angiography (DSA) | |
| magnetic resonance imaging | |
| positron emission tomographic scan (PET) |
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juliannab
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