Term | Definition |
aerobic | oxygenized |
anaerobic | deoxygenized |
substrate level phosphorylation | Phosphate group is transferred to ADP from an enzyme substrate, in this case the organic molecule |
electron carriers | carry electrons (and energy) from one set of reactions to another |
electron transport chain | transfer electrons along a series of membrane-associated proteins to a final electron acceptor and in the process harness the energy released to produce ATP |
oxidative phosphorylation | In aerobic respiration, oxygen is the final electron acceptor, resulting in the formation of water. |
oxidation | loss of electrons |
reduction | gain of electrons |
oxidation-reduction reaction | chemical reactions in which electrons are transferred from one atom or molecule to another |
electron carries act as | shuttles |
in aerobic respiration, glucose is | oxidized |
in aerobic respiration, oxygen is | reduced |
what does aerobic respiration produce | water |
in glucose, electrons are shared | equally |
in carbon dioxide, electrons are shared | unequally |
electrons are more likely to be found near | the oxygen atom |
first stage of cellular respiration | glycolysis |
second stage of cellular respiration | pyruvate oxidation |
third stage of cellular respiration | citric acid cycle |
fourth stage of cellular respiration | oxidative phosphorylation |
glycolysis | glucose is partially broken down to make pyruvate and energy is transferred to ATP and reduced electron carriers |
produced in pyruvate oxidation | reduced electron carriers |
released in pyruvate oxidation | carbon dioxide |
enters the citric acid cycle | Acetyl-CoA |
the acetyl group is completely oxidized to | carbon dioxide |
in o.p, electron carriers donate electrons to | electron transport chain |
glycolysis takes place in the | cytoplasm |
the electron transport chain is made up of | proteins and small molecules |
cellular respiration for bacteria take place in the | cytoplasm |
where is the electron transport chain in bacteria | plasma membrane |
produced in glycolysis | pyruvate |
6-carbon sugar | glucose |
first phase of glycolysis | preparatory phase |
second phase of glycolysis | cleavage phase |
third phase of glycolysis | pay off phase |
what type of process is the preparatory phase | endergonic |
what does preparatory phase add to glucose | phosphate |
what is produced in the payoff phase | ATP and NADH |
where does pyruvate oxidation take place | mitochondrial matrix |
mitochondria | Rod shaped organelles surrounded by a double membrane |
inter membrane space | Space between inner and outer membranes |
mitochondrial matrix | space enclosed by inner membrane |
what is pyruvate converted into in pyruvate oxidation | acetyl-CoA |
the citric acid cycle takes place in the | mitochondrial matrix |
produces the most energy | citric acid cycle |
the citric acid cycle supplies electrons to the | electron transport chain |
the citric acid cycle produces | ATP and electron carriers |
what is regenerated again at the end of the citric acid cycle? | oxaloacetate |
how many carbons are eliminated in the citric acid cycle | 2 |
what are the carbons released as in the citric acid cycle | carbon dioxide |
some bacteria run the cycle in | reverse |
how many complexes make up the electron transport chain | 4 |
Reduced coenzyme Q transfers electrons to | complex 3 |
cytochrome c transfers electrons to | complex 4 |
Complex IV reduces oxygen to | water |
Complexes I and II accept | electrons |
The buildup of protons in the intermembrane space results in a | proton electrochemical gradient |
the electron transport chain transfers | electrons and pump protons |
the complexes are imbedded in the | mitochondrial inner membrane |
each donor and accepter are a | redox couple |
transfer of electrons through complexes 1,3,4 are done by | pumping proteins |
the inner mitochondrial membrane is | selectively permeable |
mutualism | both parties benefit |
commensalism | one party benefits with little to no effect on the other |
parasitism | one party benefits at the expense of the other |
plants carry out _________ and ____________ | photosynthesis and cellular respiration |
animals carry out _____________ | cellular respiration |
endosymbiont theory | Chloroplasts and mitochondria have evolved directly from bacteria that were internalized into another prokaryotic cell |
symbiosis | living together |
mitochondrial ancestor was effective at | respiration and utilizing complex chemicals |
chloroplast ancestor was | photosynthetic |
chloroplasts are like __________ power plants | solar |
mitochondria are like __________ power plants | coal |
stroma | thick fluid in the chloroplast |
what does cellular respiration require | oxygen |
what does cellular respiration produce | carbon dioxide |
what type of process is photosynthesis | anabolic |
what type of process is cellular respiration | catabolic |
isomer | converts glucose to fructose structure |
what type of energy source is a proton gradient | potential |
the inner mitochondrial membrane is | selectively permeable |
what are the two types of gradients | chemical and electrical |
why does the chemical gradient take place | the difference in concentration |
why does the electrical gradient take place | due to the difference of charge on both sides of the membrane |
another name for proton gradient | electrochemical gradient |
proton gradients have a high concentration in the | inter membrane |
proton gradients have a low concentration in the | mitochondrial matrix |
converts energy from proton gradient to ATP | synthase |
ATP synthase | An enzyme that couples the movement of protons through the enzyme with the synthesis of ATP. |
in lactic acid fermentation, pyruvate is reduced to _________ | lactic acid |
in ethanol fermentation, pyruvate is reduced to ____________ | ethanol |
Fermentation | extracts energy from glucose in the absence of oxygen |
why is fermentation used | for anaerobic organisms or organisms that favor it over oxidative phosphorylation |
The 2 major pathways of fermentation | lactic acid fermentation and ethanol fermentation |
lactic acid fermentation occurs in | animals and bacteria |
ethanol fermentation occurs in | plants and fungi |
fermentation yields | 2 ATP |
stored in animals | glycogen |
stored in plants | starch |
excess glucose is as | glycogen |
Fatty acids and proteins are a useful source of | energy |
Fatty acid molecules are rich in | carbon |
Beta Oxidation | The process of shortening fatty acids by a series of reactions that sequentially remove two carbon units from their ends. |
Beta Oxidation produces | NADH and FADH2 |
the brain and red blood cells depend on __________ for energy | glucose |
what does the ATP level in a cell indicate | the energy a cell has available |
photic zone | The surface layer of the ocean through which enough sunlight penetrates to enable photosynthesis |
the source of all food we eat | photosynthesis |
what type of reaction is photosynthesis | redox |
what is synthesized during photosynthesis | carbohydrates from CO2 molecules |
during photosynthesis, ______ molecules are reduced | CO2 |
water | the ultimate electron donor |
photosynthetic electron transport chain | A series of redox reactions in which light energy absorbed by chlorophyll is used to power the movement of electrons; in oxygenic photosynthesis, the electrons ultimately come from water and the terminal electron acceptor is NADP+ |
ATP and NADPH | energy sources needed to synthesize carbohydrates |
specialized membranes | where the photosynthetic electron transport takes place |
where does photosynthesis take place in eukaryotes | chloroplast |
thylakoid membrane | A highly folded membrane in the center of the chloroplast that contains light-collecting pigments and that is the site of the photosynthetic electron transport chain |
where is the photosynthetic electron transport chain located | thylakoid membrane |
grana | (singular, granum) Interlinked structures that form the thylakoid membrane |
lumen | n eukaryotes, the continuous interior of the endoplasmic reticulum; in plants, a fluid-filled compartment enclosed by the thylakoid membrane; generally, the interior of any tubelike structure |
stroma | The region surrounding the thylakoid, where carbohydrate synthesis takes place |
carbohydrate synthesis takes place in the | stroma |
carbohydrates are broken down to make | ATP |
first step of the Calvin cycle in photosynthesis | addition of CO2 |
second step of Calvin cycle in photosynthesis | reduction |
third step of Calvin cycle in photosynthesis | regeneration |
the reducing agent of the Calvin cycle (photosynthesis) | NADPH |
The regeneration of RuBP requires | ATP |
the Calvin cycle does not use sunlight ___________ | directly |
Calvin cycle only occurs in _______ | light |
visible light is absorbed by __________ | chlorophyll |
antenna chlorophyll molecules | transfer absorbed light energy to the reaction center |
endosymbiosis | The process in which one cell takes up residence inside of another cell |
signaling cell | the source of a signaling molecule |
signaling molecule | The carrier of information transmitted when the signaling molecule binds to a receptor; also referred to as a ligand |
receptor protein | The molecule on the responding cell that binds to the signaling molecule |
Responding cell | The cell that receives information from the signaling molecule |
quorum sensing | a process by which bacteria are able to determine whether they are at low or high population density and then turn on specific genes across the entire community |
Receptor Activation | The “turning on” of a receptor, which often occurs when a signaling molecule binds to a receptor on a responding cell |
signal transduction | The process in which an extracellular molecule acts as a signal to activate a receptor, which transmits information through the cytoplasm |
Response | A change in cellular behavior, such as activation of enzymes or genes, following a signal |
Termination | In protein translation, the time at which the addition of amino acids stops and the completed polypeptide chain is released from the ribosome. In cell communication, the stopping of a signal |
Termination protects the cell from | overreacting |
When the two cells are far apart, the signaling molecule is transported by the | circulatory system |
endocrine signaling | takes place over long distances and often relies on the circulatory system for transport of signaling molecules, travel through bloodstream |
Paracrine signaling | Signaling by a molecule that travels a short distance to the nearest neighboring cell to bind its receptor and deliver its message |
Growth Factor | Any one of a group of small, soluble molecules, usually the signal in paracrine signaling, that affect cell growth, cell division, and changes in gene expression |
Neurons | nerve cells that do short distance signaling |
Autocrine Signaling | Signaling between different parts of a cell; the signaling cell and the responding cell are one and the same |
autocrine signaling is important to | multicellular organisms |
cancer | uses autocrine signaling for cell division |
Delta protein | signaling molecule |
Notch | receptor |
Ligand | Alternative term for a signaling molecule that binds with a receptor, usually a protein |
Ligand-binding site | The specific location on the receptor protein where a signaling molecule binds |
G protein coupled receptor | A receptor that couples to G proteins, which bind to the guanine nucleotides GTP and GDP |
G protein | A protein that binds to the guanine nucleotides GTP and GDP
A second group of cell-surface receptors are themselves enzymes, which are activated when the receptor binds its ligand |
Receptor Kinase | A receptor that is an enzyme that adds a phosphate group to another molecule |
Phosphatases | An enzyme that removes a phosphate group from another molecule |
First step of cell signaling | receptor activation |
second messenger | An intermediate cytosolic signaling molecule that transmits signals from a receptor to a target within the cell. (First messengers transmit signals from outside the cell to a receptor.) |
Binding affinity | The tightness of the binding between the receptor and the signaling molecule |
Tissue | A collection of cells that work together to perform a specific function |
Organ | Two or more tissues that combine and function together |
Cytoskeleton | In Eukaryotes, an internal protein scaffold that helps cells to maintain their shape and serves as a network of tracks for movement of substances within cells |
Cell junction | A complex of proteins in the plasma membrane where a cell makes contact with another cell or extracellular matrix |
Extracellular matrix | In eukaryotes, an internal protein scaffold that helps cells to mainain their shapeand serves as a network of tracks for the movement of substances within cells |
Epithelial Cells | cells arranged in one or more layers |
Epithelial Tissue | Made up of epithelial cells |
Basal Lamina | A specialized form of extracellular matrix that underlies and supports all epithelial tissues |
Tubulin | Dimers that assemble into microfilaments |
Centrosome | A compact structure that is the microtubule organizing center for animal cells |
Actin | A protein subunit that makes up microfilaments, used by both striated and smooth muscles to contract and generate force |
Dynamic Instability | Cycles of shrinkage and growth into microtubules |
Motor proteins | Any of various proteins that are involved in intracellular transport or cause muscle contraction by moving the actin microfilaments inside muscle cells |
Kinesin | A motor protein similar in structure to myosin, that transports cargo toward the plus end of microtubules. |
Dynein | A motor protein that carries cargo away from the plasma membrane toward the minus ends of microtubules |
Cilia | A hairlike organelle that propels the movement of cells or substances within cells or out of the body; shorter than a flagellum |
Myosin | A motor protein found in cells that carries cargo to the plus ends of microfilaments and is also used by both striated and smooth muscles to contract and generate force |
Integrins | A transmembrane protein, present on the surface of virtually every animal cell, that enables cells to adhere to the extracellular matrix |
Desmosomes | A button like point of adhesion that holds the plasma membranes of adjacent cells together |
Hemidesmosome | A type of desmosome in which integrins are the prominent cell adhesion molecules |
Karyotype | arrangement of chromosomes based on shape and number |
Homologous Chromosomes | one gene from mom and one gene from dad |
sex chromosomes | chromosomes associated with sex (x and y) |
Haploid | 1 set of chromosomes |
Diploid | 2 sets of chromosomes |
Polypoid | 2+ sets of chromosomes |
Example of a polypoid | plants |
sister chromatids | 2 copies of a chromosome |
How are sister chromatids produced? | replication |
Centromere | holds sister chromatids together |
prophase | chromosomes condense |
pro metaphase | attach chromosomes to centromeres |
mitotic spindle | separates daughter cells |
kinetochores | site of spindle fiber attachment |
metaphase | chromosomes align |
anaphase | sister chromatids separate (46 chromosomes arrive) |
telophase | 2 new nuclei prepare for cell division |
cytokinesis | contractile ring pulled into 2 |
what drives cytokinesis | Ftsz |
contractile ring | forms against inner cell membrane |
meiotic cell division | 2 rounds of nuclear division |
chiasma | crossing over |
crossover | breakage and reunion of non sister chromatids |
female cytoplasmic division | divided unequally, cytoplasm distributed |
male cytoplasmic division | divided equally, cytoplasm eliminated |
non-identical daughter cells | gametes, sperm, eggs |
genome | all the cells DNA |
telomeres | chromosome ends |
histone charge | positive |
DNA charge | negative |
template strand | parental strand synthesizes daughter strand |
daughter strand | synthesized from parent strand |
DNA duplex | newly synthesized strand and leftover strand |
semiconservative replication | DNA duplex synthesizes new daughter strand |
replication fork | DNA separates as DNA duplex unwinds |
leading strand | synthesized as long continuous polymer |
lagging strand | new piece of DNA initiated at intervals |
Okazaki fragments | small lagging pieces |
RNA primase | synthesizes RNA |
DNA ligase | used to close a DNA strand |
Topoisomerase II | breaks DNA double helix |
Helicase | unwinds double parental helix |
origin of replication | where DNA synthesis is initiated |
replication bubble | opening of DNA duplex |
telomerase | enzyme containing rNA |
stem cells | undergo mitotic division |