Term | Definition |
weight | m*g |
Shear stress
(Andrea) | Force applied parallel to area undergoing stress |
Tensile Stress
(Andrea) | Object is being pulled |
Yield Stress
(Andrea) | The point in which hooke's law is no longer obeyed |
Stress
(Andrea) | Force/Area |
Speed
(Andrea) | Distance/Time |
Velocity
(Andrea) | Speed with direction |
Acceleration
(Andrea) | Velocity/Time |
Momentum (p)
(Andrea) | mass(m)/Velocity (v) |
Force (F)
(Andrea) | mass(m)*acceleration (a) |
Work (w)
(Andrea) | force(F) * displacement (s) |
Power
(Andrea) | Force (F) * velocity (v) |
Blood Flow (Q)
(Andrea) | Change in Pressure (^P)/Resistance (R) |
Cross Sectional Area (CSA)
(Andrea) | (muscle mass * Cos theta )/ (Fiber Lenght *muscle density) |
Blood Velocity
(Andrea) | Q/A |
Cardiac output
(Andrea) | Stroke volume (SV) * Heart Rate (HR) |
Young's Modulus
(Andrea) | stress/strain |
Isometric Contraction | maintains same muscle length during a contraction |
Concentric Contraction | shortening of muscle during a contraction |
Eccentric Contraction | lengthening/elongation of muscle during a contraction |
Pressure Drag | def: force required to move fluid around object/animal Dominates When: - high speed - large size - low viscosity |
Friction Drag | def: force due to interactions between the fluid and surface of object/animal Dominates When: - low speed - small size - high viscosity |
Drag (D) | (1/2)*Drag Coefficient(Cd)*density*surface area(SA)*velocity(v)^2 |
Poiseuille's Equation | Volumetric flow(Q)= [change in pressure(deltaP)*pi*radius(r)^4]/[8*length(L)*viscosity) |
Vasoconstriction | - decrease radius - less flow - increase resistance |
Vasodilation | - increase radius - more flow - decrease resistance |
Lift (L) | (1/2)*Lift Coefficient(Cl)*density*surface area(SA)*velocity(v)^2 |
Clingfish | Attaches rough surfaces by: - microscopic hairs - mucus layers - soft rim |
stance | foot in contact |
swing | foot in air |
Measuring Joint & Muscle Moments | muscle moment arm(r)*Muscle force(Fm)=Joint moment arm(R)*Ground Reaction Force(G) |
Limb Effective Mechanical Advantage (EMA) | Ground Reaction Force (G)/Muscle Force (Fm) ; higher EMA=lower effort, lower EMA= higher effort |
viscoelastic | resists shear flow and strain linearly with time when a stress is applied; strains when stretched and quickly return to their original state once the stress is removed; therefore exhibits time-dependent strain. |
Reynolds Number | critical for describing fluid flow; Fi/Fv = inertial forces/viscous forces; high RE, high turbulence, low RE, laminar flow |
principle of continuity | P1V1=P2V2 |
Frank-starling law of the heart | increase in end-diastolic volume results in a more forceful contraction |
Flight and swim rotation | pitch = up-and-down "nod" movement; roll = rotation sideways; yaw = sideway movement |
Parts of a fish | paired fins: pectoral and pelvic fins; median fins: dorsal, caudal, anal fins |
Forces on a fish | buoyant, thrust, weight, drag |
Thrust force | change in momentum of vortex/change in time |
High aspect ratio | longer body, less surface area |
Low aspect ratio | shorter body, more surface area |
BCF (Body/Caudal Fin) | periodic propulsion; cyclically repeating kinematics; lower power, sustainable |
BCF Transient | brief non-repeating kinematics, high power |
MPF (Median Paired Fins) | brief or long term variable kinematics, high speed low acceleration, feeding motion |
Barnacle cement | 90% protein, coagulates and polymerizes like blood cots in humans |
echinoderms | starfish; stick with a 3 part adhesion. two parts are adhesive cells, one part is for detachment |
walk | inverted pendulum, energy exchange between KE and PE |
run | exchange between PE and KE, with work and stored energy |
Stress scale to mass | Stress = F/A = [m^(3/3)]/[m^(2/3)] = m^(1/3) |
Ground Reaction Force (GRF) | force exerted by the ground back on you; your "weight" |
3 ways to contract isometrically (Allen Le) | tendon-muscle, biarticular, muscle-muscle |
in situ(Allen Le) | in place, animal isn't moving |
in vivo(Allen Le) | in place, animal is moving |
in vitro(Allen Le) | out of body |
sonomicrometry(Allen Le) | measuring muscle length change in vivo |
newtonian fluid (Allen Le) | single value of viscosity, linear relationship b/w applied shear stress and resulting rate of deformation |
adhesion(Allen Le) | physical attraction or joining of 2 surfaces |
two approaches to measure spring mechanism(Allen Le) | 1) measure directly (tendon buckles, EMG, sonomicrometry), 2) external analysis (GRF and Kinematics) |
vector(Allen Le) | magnitude and direction |
newton's 3 laws(Allen Le) | 1) body stays rest or stays in motion unless force is applied to it 2)F=MA 3)equal and opposite forces |
how does length scale with mass(Allen Le) | L=M^1/3 |
how does area scale with mass(Allen Le) | A=M^2/3 |
Efficiency(Allen Le) | W in / W out x 100 |
perfectly elastic(Allen Le) | returns to original shape no energy lost |
perfectly plastic(Allen Le) | doesn't return to original shape, all energy lost |
viscoelastic(Allen Le) | returns to original shape after some delay, some energy lost |
Permanent Adhesion(Allen Le) | involves cement |
Temporary attachment(Allen Le) | allowing animal to attach strongly but detach quickly when it needs |
Transitory(Allen Le) | Simultaneous attachment and locomotion |
Clingfish(Allen Le) | microscopic hairs, suction, form a soft rim on surface, and secrete mucus to bind to rough surfaces |
Gecko Adhesion(Allen Le) | millions of microscopic hairs - use van Der waal's forces. Attaches to smooth surfaces |
Turbulence | destroys streamlines, high rates of sheer, viscous dissipation of energy |
Vortex | a packet of spinning fluid, cannot end in open space |
Gliding | using potential energy to offset drag; animal descends relative to air |
Soaring | gliding in upwardly moving air. Three kinds: slope soaring, circles to stay in thermal, dynamic soaring |
Tip vortex | lost energy |
Angle of attack | angle between airfoil and airfoil axis. If more than 15 degrees, there will be no lift |
Thrust | the forward component of F_aero |
Aspect ratio | length^2/surface area
length/cord |
Wing loading | mass/surface area (of wing) |
Types of organismal attachment/adhesion | 1- Permanent: involves cement
2- Temporary: allows animals to attach strongly but detach quickly
3- Transitory
3- Transitory: simultaneous attachment and locomotion |
Geckos (adhesion) | microscopic hair made from keratin, van der waals interactions |
Muscle moment | r x F_m (muscle moment arm x muscle force) |
Joint moment | R x G (joint moment arm x ground reaction force) |
Tipping point | Size of Base of Support (BoS)/ height of Center of Mass (CoM) |
Autotomy | self-amputation of appendages; muscular contractions break vertebrae at autotomy plane |
Which Fins prevent Rolling in Fish | Median Fins |
Which fins prevent Pitching | Paired Fins |
Which Fins prevents Yawning | All fins (Median and paired)` |
Digital practical image Velocimetry | A device that utilizes a strong beam of laser and silver particles to reflect the formation of vortex in relation to fin movement to understand the biomechanics of swimming. |
Thrust force | Momentum of vortex/ Time it took to form the vortex |
Momentum of vortex | water density (rho) *Circulation vortex * A (Surface area of the vortex)(pi*r^2) |
Circulation of vortex | Avg. Tangential velocity * Circumference (2*pi*r) |
Aspect ratio | (leading edge)^2/ Area |
High aspect ratio fin | Long fin and smaller surface area
minimal drag
long distance swimming because they have longer drag
High efficiency |
Low aspect ratio fin | Short and larger area |
C-start Mechanism | Mauther cell, 1) pairs of neurons run down each side of the body
2) discharge muscle contraction
3) one side is inhibited
4) C-shape Formed
5) Used in escaping |
S-strart Mechanism | -prey capture
-slower than C-start
-More accurate than C-start
-simultaneous muscle contraction |
Static Stability | A vertical line passing through Center of Mass (CoM) will fall within base of support (BoS) |
Hydrostatic stability in Fish | Fish are always hydrostatically stable becaus ethe use fin muscle to prevent rolling upside down. |
Dynamic Stability | Active property that always relies on feedback to bring back the animal to normal movement after perturbation. |
Joint Flexor Moment | When the angle of the joint is below 180 degrees on the side facing the Ground Reaction Force |
Permanent Organismal Attachment | Involves cement |
Temporary Organismal Attachment | Allowing animal to attach strongly, but detach quickly |
Transitory Organismal Attachment | Simultaneous attachment + locomotion |
Static Stability | Passive property; forces acting on body are at equilibrium.
Based on the location of the center of mass relative to base of support. |
Tipping Point | Size of base of support/center of mass |
Dynamic Stability | Active property; relies on constant feedback, sometimes feet forward control |
Robustness | Max perturbation that an animal can handle |
Tail Stability | Can be used for climbing, mid-air righting, and jumping |
Centripetal Force | mv^2/r |
Muscle Moment | r*Fm |
Joint Moment | R*G |
Joint Extensor Moment | When the angle of the joint is above 180 degrees on the side facing the Ground Reaction Force |
Compressive Stress | Force is perpendicular to the area acted upon, and acts to 'squeeze' the surface |
Flexural Stress | Force acts to 'bend' the material, and combines shear, tensile and compressive stresses |
Torsional Stress | Force acts to 'twist' the material. Multiple stresses involved |
Pressure | Force over area, acts omnidirectional |
Potential Energy | Energy due to an object's position in space. (mass) x (acceleration due to gravity) x (height) |
Kinetic Energy | Energy due to an object's velocity. (mass) x (velocity)^2 x (1/2) |
Conservation of Energy | Total energy in a system is constant. This does not preclude the energy from changing forms (eg. potential energy can become kinetic energy) |
Conservation of Momentum | Momentum is constant for an object. (mass) x (velocity) |
Higher Effective Mechanical Advantage | lower effort |
Lower Effective Mechanical Advantage | higher effort |
Change in Elastic Storage | Change in Kinetic energy + Change in Potential energy |
Circulation | vortex stuck to a wing |
Conservation of Angular Momentum | Angular momentum is constant for an object. (mass) x (angular velocity) x (radius)^2 |
Camber | The shape of a wing. Crucial to determining lift |
Scaling | Determining how two variables relate to one another. For example, recognizing volume is approximately (length)^3 |
Center of Mass (CoM) | A point which we can model as the center of the distribution of mass. As long as the CoM is above the BoS, the object/organism is statically stable |
Base of Support (BoS) | Area defined by supportive struts of object or organism. As long as the CoM is above the BoS, the object/organism is statically stable |
Perturbation | A force that threatens the stability of the object or organism at hand. For example, a gust of wind on a tree, or a person trying to tip a cow because, well, people do that sort of thing, apparently. |
Upright animal | Has low muscle and decreased static stability. |
Turning | The force required to turnaround a curve with a radius r. |
Locomotion | the ability to move from one place to another; movement |
Mauthner Cell | A pair of neurons that runs down each side of the body and are responsible for very fast escape reflexes. |
Streamline | Line of fluid where the local flow of velocity is tangent. |
Resilience | Elasticity of an object; the ability of an object to spring back into shape. |
Plasticity | The quality of being easily shaped. |
Stiffness | The quality of being strong. |
Toughness | The ability to withstand rough handling and adverse conditions. |
Viscosity | The state of being thick, sticky, and semifluid in consistency because of internal forces. |
Viscous Forces | The force between a body and a fluid that moves past it in a direction opposite of the flow of the fluid that passes the object. |
Inertia | The property of matter that keeps it at constant rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless acted upon by an outside force. |
Inertial force | The force that resists a change in the velocity of an object. |
Motor Unit | One motor neuron and all the fibers it innervates. |
Muscle Spindle | Sensory receptors in the muscle that senses the changes in muscle length. |
upright animal | low muscle force due to high EMA BUT decreased static stability |
crouched animal | high muscle force due to low EMA BUT increased static stability |
Shear Modulus | Shear Stress/Shear Strain |
Strain | Delta Length/Initial Length |
Conservation of Mass | a principle stating that mass cannot be created or destroyed. |
Allometry | study of the relationship of body size to shape, anatomy, physiology |
Allometric growth | The regular and systematic pattern of growth such that the mass or size of any organ or part of a body can be expressed in relation to the total mass or size of the entire organism |
external pertubation | can be external / internal
- environment: obstacle, height, friction
- external: carry offspring / prey
- feeding
- partintion autonomy |
Hooke's Law | force (F) needed to extend or compress a spring by some distance X is proportional to that distance. |
primary forces of flight | lift, weight, drag, thrust |
adaptation of flight | reduce mass, fuse bones, feathers, wings |
evolution of flight | birds, bats, insects, pterosaurs |
stride | stance + swing |
Where is potential energy highest when walking | Midstance |
Where is kinetic energy lowest when walking | Midstance |
Van der waals attractive force (VP) | weak attractive force. frictional force and contact electrification. has direction |
Types of Attachments | 1. Friction
2. Hooks
3. Locks and snaps
4. Clamps
5. Suction
6. Adhesive Secretions |
oscillation | repetitive movement, such as an up and down stroke while a fish is swimming |
undulation | wavelike motion such as stingrays |
Types of vortices from a bird (VP) | Bound vortex, tip vortex, and starting vortex |
Forces resisted in adhesion | Drag, Gravity |
What is turbulent flow associated with? | High drag |
Breder 1926 | defined mode of swimming based on genus name & patterns of motion |
Thrust Force | density x circulation of vortex x SA of circle |
Systole (VP) | contraction |
Diastole (VP) | relaxation |
Lift is perpendicular to? | Air flow |
Drag is parallel to | Fluid flow |
High AR for fins | minimual drag, good for long distance swimming. shape decreases viscous drag by low SA = efficent |
Low AR for fins | create drag, good for stop, turn, and burst of speed = inefficent. shape increases viscous drag by increasing SA |
Wingbeat (VP) | downstroke and upstroke(recovery phase) |
Trade off | a balance achieved between two desirable but incompatible features; a compromise |
3 types of vortex on a wing | 1. Tip vortex
2. Bound vortex
3. Starting vortex
- vortex can't end in open space, must circle on self or to a solid structure |
Rheotaxis (VP) | fish turning to face an incoming current |
Dorsal fins prevent | Rolling |
Dorsal fin | an unpaired fin on the back of a fish |
Why do birds fly in formation? | the wings provide lift with the tip vortex and saves 20% energy for the neighboring birds from their tip vortex |
Caudal fin | Tail fin |
Pectoral fin | each of a pair of fins situated on either side just behind a fish's head, helping to control the direction of movement during locomotion |
Which fins help prevent yawing | All fins |
Pectoral fins are used for | Pitching |
How do we visualize vortices | Digital Particle Image Velocimetry |
Flapping fins | Up + down |
Rowing fins | Fins row back and forth, drag based thrust |
How is lift created? | The airfoil on the top has a longer path and has a higher velocity, so the pressure is lower. Below the airfoil has a lower velocity so the pressure is higher. Pressure goes from high to low so lift is created with a circulation that goes down to up. |
Name an advantage Cling fish have over Geckos | -Due to their soft rim they can attach to rough surfaces. Geckos rely on contact of hair so they require a smooth surface. dustin
-the release of mucus allows Cling fish to attach to wet surfaces |
What is the difference in a force versus times graph for running and walking? | Running has a higher peak force and ends earlier while walking has a lower peak force. dustin
-the area between the two graphs are the same. |
As body size increases = GRF (increases/decreases)? | increases dustin |
Explain the trade off between high and low aspect ratio | High would create minimal drag due to reduce in surface area -> long distance flying
Low would create drag because of increase in surface are -> Manuevarability dustin |
What is the drawbacks of C-start | always accelerate in another direction dustin |
Explain the trade off between EMA and stability | High EMA = low muscle force and low static stability ->upright
Low EMA = High muscle force and High static stability -> crouched dustin |
External flexor moment | r/R=G/Fm
R is changing --> Fm will change to counteract it. dustin |
Explain the wing loading trade off | High wing loading -> small wings to fly
dustin
Low wing loading --> fly constantly and slowly |
Whats the difference between C-start and s-start | c-start is a unilateral muscle contraction while s-start contracts multiple parts of the body. dustin |
Difference between BCF periodic and BCF transient | BCF periodic is repeating and small acceleration
BCF transitory is non repeating and high acceleration. dustin |
what is the primary mechanism that allows geckos adhesion | Van der Wals Interaction density of hair is 1 million/mm^2 dustin |
Flow of energy in muscle tendon system for energy conservation.
(Peter P.) | Body => Tendon => Body |
Flow of energy in muscle tendon system for power production.
(Peter P.) | Muscle => Tendon => Body |
Flow of energy in muscle tendon system for energy absorption.
(Peter P.) | Body => Tendon => Muscle |
Parallel muscle (Peter P.) | Fibers or fascicles run the length of the muscle body. |
Pinnate muscle (Peter P.) | Fibers or fascicles are angled relative to the long axis of the muscle belly. |
Irrotational vortex (Peter P.) | One in which the different layers of fluid are rotating at different velocities. |
Size principle of motor unit recruitment (Peter P.) | As demand increases on the neuromuscular system, more motor units will be recruited. As the recruitment increases, additional (and larger) motor units will be added and force will rise exponentially. |
Peak Power (Peter P.) | 30% of Vmax |
Positive Allometry (Peter P.) | When something scales with size at a faster rate than is expected by isometry. |
Muscle Fiber (Type 1) (Peter P.) | Slow, oxidative. Allows you to perform slow behaviors that require endurance, but not a lot of force. |
Muscle Fiber (Type 2A) (Peter P.) | Fast, oxidative-glycolytic. Allows you to perform fast behaviors with some resistance to fatigue. |
Muscle Fiber (Type 2B) (Peter P.) | Fast, glycolytic. Allows you to perform fast behaviors that require a lot of force and quick response, due to its high innervation ratio. |
Questions that can be answered using motion analysis. (Peter P.) | 1. Descriptions of behavior.
2. How particular performance measures are achieved?
3. How do organisms respond to different treatments? |
First class lever (Peter P.) | Fulcrum placed between the effort and load. |
Second class lever (Peter P.) | Load in-between the effort and the fulcrum. |
Third class lever (Peter P.) | Effort between the load and the fulcrum. |
What are the two ends of the continuum for modes of swimming? | Undulation to Oscillation |
Webb 1984 | Proposed BCF periodic, BCF transient, MPF, and Ocassional modes of swimming. |
What does stride length x stride frequency =? | speed |
How does CSA scale to Mass? | CSA = Mass^(2/3) |
What is the major antagonistic force in aquatic locomotion? | Drag |
What are the 3 factors involved in contractile force of muscles? | size of MU, # of MU involved, thicknes off muscle cells. |
What does "all-or-nothing" refer to when discussing Motor Units? | All fibers innervated by the neuron of the motor unit will all contract when an action potential and will not contract when an action potential is not fired. |
What is motor unit recruitment? | process of increasing and conferring activation of motor units to produce more force. |
Blood Velocity | Flow/CSA of blood vessels |
What happens to a vortex when its radius increases? | velocity decreases |
What is the midpoint during a walk | the highest point reached |
what is the midpoint during a run | the lowest point reached |
What is stride length? | Distance |
What kind of ______ joint moment must have occured for an extensor muscle moment to balance it? | flexor |
What kind of ______ muscle moment must have occured for an extensor joint moment to balance it? | flexor |
Steps of Feeding (VP) | 1.) locate prey and move to prey. 2.) Capture/subdue prey. 3.) process/ingest prey |
Sensory systems (VP) | Vision, smell, sound, mechanical, temperature |
Performance (VP) | Ability to perform ecologically relevant task |
Jaw Protrusion (VP) | Move flow closer to prey |
Hyoid depression and cranial elevation (VP) | Expands mouth cavity |
Diversity of feeding (VP) | Prey type and medium of the habitat |
Epaxial muscle (VP) | Cranial elevation |
Sternohyoid (VP) | Hyoid retraction |
Hypaxial muscle (VP) | Cleithrum retraction |
Ways animal feed | filter feeding, suction feeding dustin |
suction feeding mode | H2O to entrain the pray
small mouth
rapid prey velocity
small non evasive prey dustin |
Ram feeding mode | predatro over take the prey
large mouth
rapid predator velocity
pursue evasive prey. |
Explain mechanism for tongue projection | tongue is attached to front of the mouth.
muscle contracts -> pulls base of the tongue down
inertia extends soft mass of tongue when tongue flips out of mouth. dustin |
Hysterisis | percent energy lost, can be found by calculating the area between the curves |
Resilin | facilitates flexibility in wings, 50% water, 90% efficiency |
Resilience Modulus | |
J-shaped curve | compliant to a point then just stiff, examples include arteries of human circulatory system and neck muscle of deer |
keratin | beta-keratin stronger than alpha-keratin, structural protein found in integument of vertebrates |
fascicles | bundle of muscle fibers |
sacromere | made up of thick myosin filament and thin actin filament |
myosin | thick filament, motor protien, structure: head=ATPase, tail=binding, neck=regulates ATPase |
actin | thin filament |
why is ATP important in muscle contraction? | required for detachment of myosin from actin |
why is Calcium important in muscle contraction? | required for attachment of myosin to actin |
Sliding Filament Model (SFM) | similar to pulling a rope, alternating cycle of grasping and releasing the rope with actin=rope and myosin=hand |
what is the trade-off for super fat muscle? | low force and high velocity |
What are some differences between suction and ram fish? | Suction fish-small mouth, rapid prey velocity, small and non-evasive prey
Ram fish-large mouth, rapid predator velocity, evasive prey |
Which muscles are used for jaw profusion in fish? | epaxial muscle, sternohyoid, and hypaxial muscle |
Equation used for mammalian chewing | out moment (FoLo) = muscle moment (LiFi) |
Fatigue | 1. Everyone experiences fatigue
2. Fatigue ability increases with age
3. Critical for survival
4. Important for many clinical conditions. |
Muscle Fatigue | a reduction in maximum muscle force due to exercise |
Two factors in fatigue | central and peripheral |
Factors in central fatigue | adenosine, cognitive aspect, mental tiredness, inhibition of motoneurons due to muscle input, discharge frequency of spinal motor neurons |
Factors in peripheral fatigue | lactic acid, glycogen depletion, sarcomere damage, acetylcholine depletion, increase extracellular K+, increase inorganic phosphate from breakdown of creatine phosphate |
adenosine | reduces arousal and inhibits excitatory neurotransmitters in brain |
lactic acid | performance enhancer that increases force |
Late 1800s study in relation to exercise | In a matter of 2 weeks
1. strength training in one arm --> trained arm 70% increased force, arm not trained 40% increase force
2. control --> no change in strength |
1992 study in relation to exercise | Showed how important CNS is
1. control --> no change in strength
2. subjects exercised --> 30% increased force
3. subjects imagined they exercised --> 22% increased force |
Human Training | individuals respond differently, could be related to ACE gene |
Mosso's Findings (1891) | first to state that individuals vary with fatigue, even though test subjects all did same task and age still different results |
4 Basic Aerodynamic Forces | Thrust, Lift, Drag, Weight |
External joint moments on graph | Moment (N*m) on y-axis
Time (s) on x-axis
+ <180 = flexor joint moment, extensor muscle moment
- > 180 = extensor joint moment, flexor muscle |
Fatigue ability | defined as time it takes for muscle to fatigue |
for walking when is PE highest? | midstance |
what blocks adenosine receptors? | caffeine |
dorsal | back |
ventral | stomach side |
anterior | towards head |
posterior/caudal | towards bottom |
proximal | near center |
lateral | towards side |
what makes a good morphological description? | you can draw a basic map of the features based on the description |
homology | shared characteristics due to a common ancestor |
morphospace | graph describing morphologies where each axis represents a character or even a combination of characters |
disparity | measure of how variable a group is |
medial | midline |
distal | far from center |
constraints | restriction, limitation or bias in the course of evolution
3 major types: phylogenetic, developmental, functional |
Morphology | The study and description of form |
What features make up a good morphological description? | -anatomical terms of location
-features that are close to the point of interest
-points of reference to describe a feature
-concise and consistent |
Theoretical morphology | Defining what are the possible forms by using mathematical and geometric rules |
In morphospace what do the points closer in space represent? | Represents forms that look very similar to each other |
In morphospace, what do the points farther in space represent? | Represents forms that look very different from each other |
Phylogenetic constraint | constraint based on the trajectory the group has historically taken |
Developmental Constraint | The developmental pathway is constrained in a particular way |
Functional Constraint | The form may not be physically possible or not suited to an animal’s needs |
What are the types of relationships that morphology can have with performance? | one to one mapping
one to many mapping
many to one mapping
many to many mapping |
One to one mapping | one morphological trait can be related to one functional trait |
One to many mapping | One morphological trait is related to many functional traits |
Many to one mapping | Many forms can perform the same function
(when one function is made up of 3 or more parts) |
Many to many mapping | Multiple forms affect multiple functions |
Redundancy | the more parts, the more potential there is for this relationship |
What is MicroCT and list 3 different modeling techniques | MicroCT helps with capturing 3D complex shapes
Techniques:
computational fluid dynamics
X-Romm and animation
Finite Element Analysis |
Duty factor - walking | Each leg contacts the ground for more than half the total stride time - duty factor > 50% |
Adjust speed in gaits | By changing stride length but not usually stride frequency. |
Power related to two gaits | Going slower, walking is cheaper; going faster,
running is cheaper. |
Compressive stress rule | All animals hit about the same peak compressive stress in their leg
bones. |
weakening of coral reefs | increased wave forces and lowering of pH |
components of reproductive isolation | Hybrid inviability and Migrant inferiority, both informing Biomechanics |
phenotypic plasticity | non-genetic differences in phenotypes |
Bone compressive strength | about 200 megapascals |
Load carrying - humans | that the cost of carrying a load by a human male differs in no significant way from the cost
of self-transport. |
GT speed | speed at which fish go from pectoral to caudal fins |
Lauder paper purpose | How to measure thrust in fluid |
linking biomechanics and speciation | stablishing the genetic basis of biomechanical traits, testing whether similar and divergent selection lead to biomechanical divergence, testing whether/howbiomechanical traits affect RI |
Muscle CSA scale body mass | overall muscle cross section will scale with body mass to the power 0.67—indistinguishable from 0.68. |
Transport cost scale body mass | the minimum metabolic cost of transport scales with body mass to the power –0.32 |
Galloping | An asymmetrical gait - the paired legs - the two front legs operate almost simultaneously, as
do the two hind legs -
don’t synchronize exactly, with one
always striking just before the other. |
Prey Type (Hoon) | Evasive vs sessile
Hard vs soft
Large vs small |
Sensory Sytems (Hoon) | Characteristics to locate prey and move to it
Vision, Smell, Sound, Mechanical, Temperature |
Frog Tongue Projection (Hoon) | Tongue is attached to front of mouth. Muscle contracts and pull bottom of the tongue down which causes tip of tongue to flip out of mouth |
Walking Stride (Hoon) | KE and PE energy exchanged during locomotion (Out of phase) |
Running Stride (Hoon) | KE and PE not equally exchanged.
Delta U = Delta KE + Delta PE |
Isometric muscle contraction (Hoon) | Same length during a contraction
Ex. Holding a book |
Concentric muscle contraction (Hoon) | Muscle shortening when generating force
Ex. Lifting an object |
Eccentric muscle contraction (Hoon) | Muscle lengthening when generating force
Ex. Slowly lowering an object |
Jumping bush babies movement (Hoon) | Fast motor units recruited without slow muscles |
Fish escape response (Hoon) | Fish can recruit white muscles only to maximize short term escape speed |
Muscle Spindles (Hoon) | Sensory receptors within muscle to detect changes in length. Prevent overstretch |
Golgi Tendon Organ (Hoon) | Senses changes in muscle force to prevent muscle damag |
Positive work loop (Hoon) | Shortening of muscle on a Force x Length Curve (Concentric contraction) |
Negative Work loop (Hoon) | Lengthening of muscle on a Force x Length Curve (Eccentric Contraction) |
Pennation Angle (Hoon) | A pennate or pinnate muscle (also called a penniform muscle) is a muscle with fascicles that attach obliquely (in a slanting position) to its tendon. These types of muscles generally allow higher force production but smaller range of motion When a muscle |
Anteromedial (Julia) | anterior + medial |
Theoretical morphology (Julia) | What things could look like in comparison to what things actually look like |
Theoretical morphospace (Julia) | Not constructed by measuring already existing forms; Uses simulation and therefore creates a map of all existing forms adhering to designated rules. |
3 Major Types of Constraints (Julia) | 1. Phylogenetic Constraint
2. Development Constraint
3. Functional Constraint |
One to One Mapping (Julia) | Assumes one morphological trait related to one function; measure what is thought to be a biomechanically relevant trait; often use these results to predict of a untested animal |
One to Many Mapping: Facilitation (Julia) | Tells us that the demands of related different functions may be similar in some way; e.g. Leg length, jump height, & sprint speed |
One to Many Mapping: Trade-Off (Julia) | May tell us that relating functions are competing in some way; e.g. pennation angle, contraction force, and contraction speed |
Many to One Mapping (Julia) | a potential mechanism of weakening trade-offs; i.e. If one part of the function fails, other parts can make up for it |
Four bar linkages in fish (Julia) | Depending on the shape of the four bar linkage, opening the jaw will cause the upper jaw to rotate to different degrees |
Geometric morphometrics (Julia) | Method of quantifying shape by placing landmarks on homologous structures across many specimens; Gives us methods for better information than linear measurements; Creates morphospaces where the axes are combinations of variables |
X-Romm (Julia) | X-ray video taken through time and can be either 2D or 3D; fluorescent markers are used to track points in the skeleton to see how specifically the bones move; the video can be enhanced by designating the same points to a microCT model to align the bones |
Finite element analysis (Julia) | method for prediction how model reacts to real world forces: break down 3D models into manageable "bricks" - tiny parts; apply physics equations based on their material properties that are told to the computer |
Turbulence (Julia) | the random motion of fluid in space and time |
Gliding (Julia) | always descending, losing air speed |
Wing beat in flapping flight (true flight) (Julia) | down stroke (flapping down) = high force, up stroke (recovery) = low force; the forward component of the two actions creates thrust |