Term | Definition |
Anatomy= | Structure |
Physiology= | Function |
Gross Anatomy | Large structures, body, study of cadavers |
Microscopic Anatomy | Smaller structures, can be seen only wth a microscope |
Scientific Method: Seven Steps | Observation, Hypothesis, Test it, Collect data, Analyze it, Make a conclusion, Start again |
What is The Chemical level | Atoms, molecules, complex shapes and their interactions |
What is the Cellular level | Smallest living unit in the body, organelles |
What is the tissue level | Many cells put together |
What is the organ level | Two or more tissues working together, perform a specific function |
What is the Organ system level | Two or more organs working together |
What is the Organism level | All organ systems working together, maintaining the life of a living thing |
Homeostasis= | Everything working together for the common good |
What are the types of regulation? | Autoregulation and Extrinsic regulation |
What is auto regulation? | cells, tissues, organs sense a disturbance and respond |
What is Extrinsic regulation? | a cell type detects disturbance, sends signal elsewhere in body |
What are the three components of regulatory system? | Receptor, Control center, Effector |
What does the receptor do? | sensitive to stimulus |
What does the control center do? | directs a response |
What does the effector do? | changes activity to carry out response |
Negative feedback= | response reduces or negates original signal |
Positive feedback= | response escalates or intensifies the original signal |
What are X-rays | oldest method, uses electromagnetic radiation to identify dense objects |
Barium solution is? | The liquid that must be swallowed in order to identify soft tissue |
CAT scan | Many x-ray images put together by a computer like a puzzle |
MRI scan | Huge magnet rotates around body, moving your atoms, then radio pulse, detecting the structures in your brain, and computer then assembles the image |
PET scan | detects radiation and computer reconstructs image, to detect brain activity, cancer, blood flow |
Ultrasound | High frequency sound waves bounce off different structures and go back to the receiver |
Echogram = | Image produced from and ultrasound |
Chemistry = | Study of matter "stuff" |
Mass = | amount of material in an object |
Atom = | one of the smallest units of matter |
Atoms are made up of? | protons (+), neutrons (0), electrons (-) |
protons and electrons | Most stable atoms have the same number of ____________ |
isotopes= | When the number of neutrons vary |
Molecule= | atoms sharing electrons, joined together |
Compound= | broader, any atoms interacting |
Ionic bonds = | Interaction between two charged atoms |
Covalent bonds= | Sharing electrons, not taking them |
Free radicals= | atoms "steals" electron, instead of sharing, other one is hyperreactive |
Non polar covalent bonds= | both atoms "pull" equally |
Polar covalent bonds= | one atoms "pull" is stronger |
Hydrogen bond= | A relatively weak interaction between partially charged molecules |
Hydrogen | Hydrogen bonds most commonly involve ________ |
Water | Hydrogen bonds gives _________ its properties |
Metabolism= | All chemical reactions going on inside of a cell |
Catabolism = | decomposition of complex molecules |
Anabolism = | Synthesizing large molecules in the cell |
Decomposition reactions= | Big molecules broken down into smaller ones |
Hydrolysis | Breaking down water molecules |
Synthesis reactions | Smaller molecules combining into a larger one |
Activation energy | Required to start a reaction |
Enzymes | Are catalysts; they get the reaction started |
Solute | Substance dissolved |
Solvent | Water |
Solution | Mixture of solute and solvent |
Electrolytes | Soluble inorganic compounds in your blood that carry a charge |
partially | Water is ___________ charged |
Hydrophilic | Some atoms ,charge, |
Hydrophobic | Other atoms,not charged, dissociate from the water |
Buffering systems | Weak acidic or basic compounds that absorb H+ or OH -,regulate your PH levels |
Carbohydrates= | sugars and starches; "one hexagon" |
Simple carbohydrates= | monosaccharides, simplest form, single carbohydrate unit, only 3-7 carbon atoms |
ringform | ______________ form monosaccharide is most common |
Hyperglycemia | Too much glucose |
Hypoglycemia | Too little glucose |
What corrects the amount of glucose that the body has? What is released to correct this? | Pancreas, insulin |
Type 1 Diabetes= | No insulin produced |
Type 2 Diabetes= | Insulin resistance |
Disaccharides= | Two sugar units |
Polysaccharides= | many sugar units |
Glycogen= | Animal starch |
Lipids= | fats, oils, steroids |
What elements are lipids made up of? | Carbon and Hydrogen and oxygen |
Fatty acids = | Long chains of carbon with a carboxyl group at "head" |
What are the two types of lipids? | Saturated and unsaturated |
Saturated= | maximum number of hydrogens |
Saturated fats tend to be... | solid |
unsaturated= | extra carbon bonds, causes "kinks" in chain |
Unsaturated fats tend to be.... | liquids |
What is the most well-known fats? | Omega - 3 fatty acids |
Trans fat= | Hydrogens added to unsaturated fats to make them saturated and solid |
Triglycerides= | fat storage for energy reserves as well as insulation; Has glycerol |
Eicosanoids= | lipids that are hormones |
Leukotrienes= | coordinate response to injury |
Prostaglandis= | inflammatory response to injury |
Cholesterol= | most common steroid, lipid in your cells that is created by your body and taken via food |
Lipitor= | best selling drug of all time. reduces blood cholesterol level |
Cortisol= | stress response |
testosterone and estrogens help with? | reproduction |
Phospholipids and glycolipids = | Structure of cells, makes up cell membrane |
This takes up 20% of body weight, and is the most abundant organic molecule | proteins |
What are the elements that make up proteins? | Carbon, Hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen |
What do proteins consist of? | Amino acids |
amino acids are linked by ? | peptide bonds |
peptide= | `single long chain |
polypeptide= | multiple chains working together |
What are the four levels of protein structure? | Primary structure, secondary structure, tertiary structure, Quaternary structure |
Primary structure= | amino acids linked together |
secondary strucutre= | alpha helix; bonding between strands |
Tertiary structure= | three dimensional; bending and twisting |
Quaternary structure= | entire structure working together |
Substrates= | reactants bind to enzymes |
Active site= | location where reaction happens |
products= | after reaction |
The building code of life? | DNA and RNA |
DNA and RNA are made up of what elements? | carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus |
DNA= | double helix, sturdy, holds info |
RNA= | single helix, temporary and fragile, messenger and worker |
ATP= | "Energy currency of the cell" |
number of phosphate in ATP? | 3 |
Cell= | smallest living unit in the body |
cells come from? | division of other cells |
Sex cells= | cells for reproduction |
Do cells regulate their own homeostasis? | yes |
Somatic cells= | Cells of the body |
Plasma membrane= | Physical isolation, structural support, sensitive to environmental change |
Membranes are made up of ? | Phospholipid bialye |
True or false: hydrophobic interior and hydrophilic exterior | true |
Plasma membranes are full of ? | Cholesterol |
Glycocalyx= | Carbohydrates on outside of membrane |
Diffusion= | particles move from where there is more, to where there is fewer |
Osmosis | Water movement |
Cytoplasm= | "stuff" inside the cell; fluid and structures |
Cytosol= | just the fluid; includes inclusions, or masses of lipids |
Cytoskeleton= | protein network of cell |
Cytoskeletons have small __________, and big __________ | filaments, microtubules |
Cilia and Flagella= | finger-like structures supported by cytoskeleton microfilaments |
Why are cilia and filaments so important? | They're used for movement of the cell |
cilia= | "beat" rhythmically to move particles across surface |
Cilia are common where? | In respiratory and digestive tracts |
Flagella= | bigger, longer structures, for fast cell movement; only found in sperm |
Ribosomes= | Protein synthesis |
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)= | convoluted, folded structure with its own membrane |
Smooth ER= | no ribosomes on surface, makes glycogen and lipids for liver cells |
Rough ER= | contain ribosomes; this is where proteins are made and packaged, transported to another organelle |
Golgi Apparatus= | "Fedex" center of the cell, they package proteins in to vesicles |
Lysosomes= | Vesicles in cytoplasm that break down, contain digestive enzymes to break down organelles |
Mitochondria= | Energy producing center of the cell |
mitochondria makes and uses a lot of ? | ATP |
true or false : mitochondria has its own DNA and makes own proteins | true |
Nucleus | Largest organelle, control center; DNA and RNA |
In the nucleus DNA unwinds, enzymes ____________ RNA | transcribe |
In the nucleus RNA goes to ribosomes where it "reads" nucleotides and ___________ it to protein | translates |
Codon= | corresponding amino acids for each set of three nucleotides |
Cell division= | two daughters form one parent |
Apoptosis= | Auto- destruction of cells on command |
Tumor= | mass or swelling of tissue by abnormal cell division |
Benign tumor= | cell division is restricted to epithelial or connective tissues, not as threatening , can be removed |
Malignant tumore= | does not respond to normal cues and spreads easily |
Metastasis= | malignant cells traveling long distances in the body |
Oncogenes= | mutations in genes that cause cancer |
Mutagen= | any agent that causes mutations in DNA |
Carcinogen= | Cancer-Causing agents |
What tissue covers every exposed surface on the body? | Epithelial |
Gap Junctions= | limit molecules that can pass through |
Tight junctions= | Free passage of molecules |
Desmosomes= | link cells together |
The portion of the cell exposed to the cavity is called its _________ surface. | apical |
The rest of the cell make up the ___________ surface | basolateral |
What are the three main kinds of epithelial tissues? | Squamous, cuboidal, and columnar |
squamous= | random shape and size |
Cuboidal= | squares |
Columnar= | rectangles |
Endocrine glands= | produce chemicals that affect things somewhere else in the body |
Exocrine glands= | have their own ducts and produce chemicals secreted outside of body |
Pancreas= | contains exocrine and endocrine glands |
What are the four types of secretions? | Apocrine, Holocrine, Nerocrine |
Apocrine= | no part of the cell is damaged from secretion |
Holocrine= | cell is destroyed from secretion |
Nerocrine= | parts of membrane are pinched off and are included in the secretion |
What are the features of connective tissues? | Many specialized cells, highly vascularized |
Matrix= | protein fibers + ground substance |
Highly vascularized= | lots of blood vessels |
Connective tissue proper= | loose or dense tissue, maple syrup like matrix |
Fibroblasts= | always present most common, make the matrix |
Fibrocytes= | second most common, maintain and repair |
Adipocytes= | fat cells, store energy |
Mesenchymal= | connective tissue stem cells, respond to injury |
Macrophages= | with blood cells, can be either resident or passing through, first line of defense, respond to infection |
Phagocytes= | Engulf pathogens using "mega-endocytosis" |
Lymphocyte cells= | highly mobile immune cells, respond to injuries, |
Antihistamines are used for? | cold and flu symptoms |
Lymphocytes= | highly mobile, migrate throughout the body, helps make antibodies tat tag specific molecules as "forgein" |
Melanocytes= | cells that make pigment, melanin, also in epithelial |
Collagen fibers= | long, straight , very common |
Reticular fibers= | thinner, branching network |
Elastic fibers= | special protein elastin, very stretchy |
Loose connective tissue= | proper is "packing material" |
Areolar tissue= | between skin and muscle, bendy |
Adipose tissue= | fat tissue |
Dense fat= | "good fat" , burns calories to generate heat, common in infants |
Fluid connective tissue= | watery matrix |
Blood plasma= | mostly characterized by blood without the red blood cells |
Supporting connective tissue= | Extremely dense, strong |
Chondroitin sulfates= | maintain elasticity and plasticity of joint cartilage |
Condrocytes= | One type of cell in cartilage |
Lacunae= | exist in their own chambers |
Osteocytes= | bone cells that are in lacunae |
Canaliculi= | Each one connected to blood via cytoplasmic extensions |
Muscle tissue= | function for contraction, which makes movement |
Skeletal muscle= | voluntary body movements , very large cells, |
Cardiac muscle= | very strong heart muscles, involuntary movements, 1-5 nuclei |
joined by gap junctions and desmosomes | Interconnected cells |
pacemaker cells= | start contraction signal with chemical cues |
Smooth muscle= | mostly internal involuntary movements, hollow organs walls and surfaces, 1 nucleus |
Neural tissue= | specialized tissue type that responds to stimuli and produces and electrical signal |
neurons= | use active transport at membrane to create electrical signal |
Neuroglia= | support neurons |
Damaged cells release what that destroy other cells? | necrosis |
cells release ____________ to begin inflammation | prostaglandins |
if a tissue can't regenerate, ex. heart and cartilage replaced with ___________. | fibrous tissues |
Osteoporosis= | condition of aging where skin gets thinner, bones become brittle |
Skin takes up how much % of total body weight? | 16 |
What are two major parts of the integumentary system? | Cutaneous membrane and Accessory structure |
What are all of the functions of integumentary system? | Protection for underlying tissues
Excretion
Maintenance
Production of keratin
Synthesis of Vitamin D3
Fat storage
Detection
Coordination of immune system |
Avascular= | lack of blood vessels. nutrients and waste diffuse |
What are the layers of the epidermis? | Stratum corneum
Stratum lucidum
Stratum granulosum
Stratum Spinsosum
Stratum basale |
keratinocytes= | most abundant epithelia cell, begin at bottom and die as they move up |
What attaches to the stratum basale on the basement membrane? | Desmosomes |
Epidermal ridges= | Interlock together in ridges because of surface area |
Fingerprints= | determined by genetics(DNA) and environment |
Once ______ _____ are in place, they divide but not move | stem cells |
basal cells= | stem cells of stratum basal |
When dividing, one cell is pushed up and differentiates into _____________. | Keratinocyte |
Stratum spinosum= | spiny layer, a major location for the immune system |
Granulosum= | grainy layer |
true or false: Cells stop dividing and flatten in the granulosum layer. | true |
Lucidum= | light, clear layer |
Where is lucidum found? | only found in thick skin |
Where do dead cells go? | They get dehydrated |
Stratum corneum= | the horny outer layer of the skin. |
Where are keratinized cells in the skin found? | The top layer of cells - 15-30 deep of full keratinized cells |
How long does it take to go from basae to corneum? | 7-10 days |
Psoriasis= | is a chronic, common skin disorder |
Inflammation of the skin and joints can be known as? | Psoriatic arthritis |
Why do we have so many layers to skin? | For pertection |
Stratum corner is __________________________ for microorganisms. | dry and uninhabitable |
Blisters= | damaged areas between the superficial and deep layers of skin can result in fluid buildup |
What are the two important pigments? | Carotene
Melanin |
carotene= | is found in corner layer cells (yellow-orange color) |
Melanocytes= | in stratum basale produce melanin (brownish) |
Where are melanocytes found? | between or deep in epidermal layers |
Melanin= | Modified amino acids |
Does melanin ever break down? | yes, gradually |
Is there any difference between lighter skinned people and darker skinned people regarding protection of the skin? | yes, In darker skinned people, projections go further, into the granulosum |
Skin color difference are due to differences in ___________________________, not really melanocyte numbers. | melanin transfer and persistence in skin |
Albinism= | deficiency or absence of melanin (genetic condition) |
What are freckles? | irregular spots of increased melanin |
Why do we have freckles/ how do we get them? | because of lots of sun exposure and UV radiation |
What is the purpose of melanin? | Protects against UV damage from sun |
What is the role of melanin? | to act as shade |
How do sun tans appear? | It comes from increased melanin production |
Can UV damage become a a lasting result? | yes |
Malignant melanoma= | basal cells that have DNA damage |
Addison's disease= | Pituitary gland produces too much/ little hormone, melanocytes responds |
Uitiligo= | loss of melanocytes, for various reasons |
enzymes= | proteins that speed up reactions |
What are the blocks that DNA is made up of? | nucleotides |
Oxidative Phosphorylation= | using enzymes to release energy to renew ATP |
Phases of Mitosis= | Prophase, Anaphase, Metaphase, Telephase |
Two main types of epithelial tissues are? | Epithelia, Glandular |