Question | Answer |
Potts Fracture | Fracture of the ankle joint with the lower parts of the fibula and tibia being broken. |
Colles Fracture | Fracture of the radius about 1inch above wrist. |
Comminuted Fracture | Bone fragments into 3 or more pieces. |
Spiral Fracture | Break occurs due to excessive twisting forces. |
Depressed Fracture | Bone portion pushed inward. |
Compression Fracture | Bone is crushed. |
Epiphyseal Fracture | Epiphysis seperates from diaphysis along epiphyseal plate. |
Greenstick Fracture | Bone breaks incompletely-one side of shaft breaks. |
Vertebral Column | 26 Bones 5 Regions |
Cervical | 7 bones in neck |
Thoracic | 12 bones |
Lumbar | 5 bones |
Sacral | 1 bone |
Coccygeal | 1 bone |
Pectoral Girdle | Attaches arms to axial skeleton, composed of clavicle and scapula. |
Pelvic Girdle | Pelvis is formed from the sacrum, coccyx, and coxal bones. Coxal bones formed from fushion of ilium, pubis, and ischium. Coxal bones have socket called acetabulum. |
Parts of long bone | Articular Cartilage, Epiphyseal Line, Spongy Bone (Red bone marrow), Medullary Cavity, Nutrient Forearm, Edosteum, Periosteum. |
Periosteum Layers | |
Fibrous Layer | Outermost layer, dense irregular connective tissue. |
Osteogenic Layer | Innermost layer, made of osteoblasts and osteoclasts. |
Sharpey's Fibers | Collagen fibers which extend from the fibrous layer to bone matrix to secure the periosteum. |
Long Bone | Longer than they are wide. ex: humurus, femur, fibula, tibia |
Short Bone | Roughly cube shaped. ex: scaphoid, lunate, calcaneus, navicular. |
Vitamins In Bone | |
Vitamin D | Has hormone calcitriol, promotes removal of calcium. |
Vitamin C | Maintains bone matrix. |
Vitamin A | Controls osteoblasts and osteoclasts activity. |
Vitamin B12 | Aids in osteoblast activity. |
Bone Repair | |
Fracture Hematoma | Broken blood vessels form clot. |
Phagocytes and osteoclasts | Remove traumatized tissue. |
Procallus | Blood capillaries organize the hematoms into granulation tissue. |
Fibroblasts form periosteum and osteoprogenator cells | Produce Collagen Fibers. |
Soft Callus | Chondroblasts form and produce fibrocartilage (fibrocartilagenous cells). |
Hard Callus | Fibrocartilage is converted to spongy bone. |
Remodeling of spongy bone to compact bone. | |
Sutures | |
Coronal Suture | Behind Forehead |
Lamboidal Suture | Above Occipital |
Squamosal Suture | Above Ear |
Sagittal Suture | Center of Head |
Types of Movement | |
Flexion | Bending, Decreases angle of joint. |
Extension | Increases angle of joint, hyperextension. |
Abduction | Movement of limb away from the midline or median plane of the body. |
Adduction | Movement of limb toward body. |
Rotation | Turning of a bone along its own axis. |
Different Joints | |
Fibrous Joint | No joint activity is present, most are immoveable. |
Cartilaginous Joint | Lack a joint cavity, not highly moveable. |
Synovial Joint | Fluid-containing joint cavity, freely moveable joints. |
Synarthrosis | Immoveable |
Suture | Occurs in-between bones of skull. Interlock with short connective tissue. Closed sutures are called synostoses. |
Gomphosis | Peg in socket |
Synchondrosis | Bar or plate of hyaline cartilage uniting bone. Only moves during growth. |
Amphiarthrosis | Slightly moveable |
Syndesmosis | Bones connected by ligaments, cords or bands of fibrous tissue. Amount of movement depends on length of connecting tissue. |
Symphysis | When articular surfaces of the bones are covered with articular cartilage (hyaline). Acts as shock absorber. Designed for strength with flexibility. |
Diarthrosis | Freely moveable |
Gliding Joint | Usually flat articulation, allow short gliding movements. |
Hinge Joint | One concave surface and one convex, permits flexion and extension only. |
Pivot Joint | Allows for rotation, atlas bone, head side to side to say "No". |
Cartilage Tears | Mostly involve meniscus from compression and stress. |
Arthritis | Pain, stiffness and swelling of joint, inflammatory disorder, synovial membrane thickens and fluid production decreases causing friction and pain. |
Osteoarthritis | Most common, chronic and degenerative, wear and tear arthritis, most prevalent in elders, more women than men, osteophytes. |
Rheumatoid Arthritis | Chronic inflammatory disorder, can occur at any age, more in women than men, joint tenderness and stiffness, autoimmune disease. |
Gouty Arthritis | Urate crystals caused by uric acid are deposited in the soft tissues of joints, causes painful attack of gout, more men than women. |
Lyme Disease | Inflammatory disease caused by spirochete bacteria transmitted by bites of ticks that live on mice and deer. |
Membranes | |
Synovial Membrane | Membrane composed of areolar tissue with elastic fibers and adipose tissue, used to line cavities of moveable joints. |
Bursa | Sac usually with lubricating fluid. |
Articular synovial membranes | Freely moving articulations, ligaments, and bursa. |
Tendon Sheaths | Surrounds tendon. |
Epithelial Membrane | Membrane composed of epithelium and connective tissue used to line a surface. |
Mucous Membranes | Lines body cavities that open to exterior, epithelial sheet is directly under a layer of loose connective tissue. This is called Laminae Propria. |
Serous Membranes | Moist membranes found in closed ventral body cavity, Parietal portion, visceral portion, results in thin clear serous fluid that lubricates surfaces of parietal and visceral layers, Pericardium, Pleura, Peritoneum. |
SKIN | |
Epidermis | What we see with our eyes, composed of stratified squamous epithelium. |
Epidermis Layers | |
Stratum Corneum (horney layer) | 20-30 rows dead cells, protect skin against abrasion and penetration, glycolipids between its cells barely waterproofs this layer. |
Stratum Lucidum (clear layer) | Thin translucent band just above stratum granulosum, 2-3 rows of clear, flat, dead keratinocytes. |
Stratum Granulosum (granular layer) | 3-5 cell layers, produce keratohyalin, lamellated granules. |
Stratum Spinosum (spiny layer) | Several cell layers thick, mostly tension-resisting bundles of prekeratin filaments, polyhedral shaped keratinocytes with spiny projections (8-10 rows), langerhan cells and processes of melanocytes. |
Stratum Basale | Deepest epidermal layer, mostly stem cells which divide to produce keratinocytes, melanocytes, and merklel cells. |
Dermis | 2nd major skin region, strong, flexible connective tissue, binds entire body together, Cells: fibroblasts, macrophages, white blood cells, matrix with collagen, elastic and reticular fibers. |
3 Layers of the Dermis | |
Papillary Layer | Areolar tissue with many blood vessels and elastic fibers. Dermal papillae Indentations into epithelium. Free nerve endings, meisseners corpuscles. |
Reticular Layer | Thicker 2nd layer, dense irregular connective tissue with collagen, elastic and reticular fibers, fibers allow for extensibility and elasticity, Krause corpuscles, ruffini corpuscles, collagen fibers align in a direction called lines of cleavage. |
Hypodermis (superficial fascia) | The subcutaneous layer, attaches to its underlying tissues, contains pacinian corpuscles. |
Skin Colors | |
Melanin in Epidermis | Pigment that makes up color of skin, produced in cells called melanocytes. |
Carotene in Dermis | Yellow-Orange pigment, accumulates in stratum corneum and hypodermis; most evident in thick skin. |
Blood in capillaries of dermis | Reddish, pass blood from arteries to veins. |
Albinism | An inherited condition, a lack of pigment that gives color to skin, eyes, and hair. |
Cyanosis | Blue colored due to heart failure or respiratory disease. |
Erythema | Reddened skin due to blushing, fever, hypertension, inflammation, or allergy. |
Jaundice | Yellow colored due to liver disorder. |
Epidermal Derivatives | |
Hair | Hairs are distributed over our entire skin except palms, soles, lips, nipples and some external genitalia, senses bugs on skin, hair on scalp, eyelashes, nose hairs. |
Pili (hair) | Flexible strands produced by hair follicles and consist of dead keratinized cells. |
Regions | 1. Shaft 2. Root |
3 Layers of Keratinized cells | 1. Medulla 2. Cortex 3. Cuticle |
Hair Follicle | Fold down from the epidermal surface into the dermis. Deep end of follicle forms a hair bulb, around each nerve is a sensory nerve ending called hair follicle receptors or root hair plexus Arrector Pili. |
Types of Hair | |
Vellus hair | Fine hair found on children and adult females. |
Terminal hair | Coarser, long hair of eyebrows and scalp, often darker. |
Hair Disorders | |
Alopecia | Baldness; hair not replaced as fast as it sheds. |
Male pattern Baldness | Genetically determined, sex-influenced condition. |
Glands | |
Sebaceous glands | Secrete serum made of fat, cholesterol, protein and salts to keep skin supple and inhibit bacteria. |
Sudoiferous Glands | Sweat is composed of apocrine sweat glands in groin, axilia, and areola, merocrine glands produce watery perspiration to cool body on palms, soles, and forehead. |
Ceruminous Glands | Found in lining of external ear canal, forms sticky substance called cerumen (ear wax). |
Wound Healing | |
Healing of Abrasions | Basal epidermal cells break contact with basement membrane. Cells enlarge and migrate until they meet. |
Contact Inhibition (stops growth of cells) | Migration stops when in full contact. Basal stem cells now divide to form new cells. 24-48 hours healing. |
Deep Wounds 5 Phases | |
Inflammatory Response | Formation of clot of fibrin threads. Vasodilation to bring white blood cells to fight infection. |
Migratory Phase | Clot becomes scab, epithelial cells migrate to bridge the wound. Fibroblasts travel along fibrin and form scar tissue of collagen and glycoproteins. Damaged vessels repair. |
Proliferative Phase | Growth of epithelial cells, formation of collagen fibers. |
Maturation Phase | Scab sloughs off, collagen is organized, fibroblasts decrease in number. |
Remodeling | Scar tissue collagen is more dense, fewer blood vessels, and may not have sweat glands, hair or sensory neurons. |
Burns | Tissue damage inflicted by intense heat, electric, radiation, and certain chemicals. |
First Degree Burns | Only epidermis damaged, localized redness, swelling and pain, heals in 2-3 days. |
Second Degree Burns | Injure epidermis and upper region of dermis. Mimic 1st degree burn, blisters appear. heals in 3-4 weeks. |
Third Degree Burns | Entire thickness of skin, Appears grey-white, cherry red or blackened. |
Rule of Nines | |
Head | front:4.5%, back:4.5% both:9% |
Arm | front:4.5%, back:4.5%, both:9%, both arms:18% |
Trunk | front:18%, back:18%, both:36% |
Leg | front:9%, back:9%, both:18%, both legs:36% |
Skin Cancer | |
Squamous cell carcinoma | Malignant tumor, skin and other areas. |
Basal cell carcinoma | Common, slow growing, usually facial, rarely metastasizes. |
Kaposi Sarcoma | Malignant, vascular, effects lower extremities, aids, usually middle aged men caused by herpes. |
Malignant Melanoma | Looks like mole, sides do not match, border is irregular, brown, red, blue, dark brown, bigger than pencil eraser, a little elevated. |
Mutations | When DNA gene is damaged or changed in such a way as to alter the genetic message carried by that gene. |
Consequences | |
Apoptosis | Cell dies off |
Anaplastic Cells | Not normal/harmful |
Lack of contact inhibition | Cell doesn't know when to stop reproducing. |
Function of Kidney | |
Blood | Filters the Hazardous nitrogenous wastes in our blood caused by the breakdown of proteins such as creatinine and urea. |
Water | Reabsorbs water loss during filtration. |
Wastes | Concentrates and removes wastes in liquid form (urine). |
Layers of Kidney | |
Renal Capsule | Thinner innermost layer protects kidney from infection. |
Adipost | Cushions and holds kidney in place. |
Renal Fascia | Outermost layer anchors in place to body wall. |
Cortex | Outer reddish area forms columns. |
Medulla | Inner region of kidney forms pyramids. |
Pyramids | Triangular structure composed of medullary tissue. |
Papillae | Structure at base of pyramids connects to calyces. |
Columns | Between pyramids made of cortical tissue. |
Calyces | Collect area for urine. |
Pelvis | Large cavity that collects urine and leads out into ureter. |
Bladder and Sphincter | |
Urinary Bladder | Expandable sac with receptors. |
Internal Sphincter | No control, empties around 200-400 ml of urine. |
External Sphincter | Voluntary override; |
Ureter Tubes lead to the bladder | Gravity and pressure controlled. |
Urethra | Tube to the external environment. |
Nephron | |
Cortical Nephron | |
Juxtamedullary Nephron (deeper) | Eliminates wastes from the body, regulates blood volume and BP, controls levels of electrolytes, regulates blood pH. |
Parts of Nephron | |
Bowmans (glomerular) Capsule | In cortex of the kidney, surrounds the glomerulus, site of filtration of the blood. |
Glomerulus | Network of capillaries surrounded by the Bowmans capsules, site of filtration. |
Proximal convoluted tubule | Where most of the water is absorbed by obligatory water reabsorption. |
Descending limb of the loop of Henle | |
Loop of Henle | |
Ascending limb of the loop of Henle | |
Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT) | Away from the Bowmans capsule |
Collecting Duct | |
Enzymes | |
When BP drops, JG (juxtaglomerular) cells secrete an enzyme renin. | |
Renin removes AA (Angiotensin-Aldosterone) from angiotensinogen to form angiotensin1 | |
Angiotensin 1 goes to lungs, and enzymes convert it to angiotensin 2. | |
Angiotensin 2 | Vasoconstricts to raise BP, reduces renal flow, stimulates secretion of aldosterone (hormone) from the adrenal cortex to stimulate thirst. (Aldosterone makes you thirsty). |
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) which controls the permeability of DCT and CT to water. | |
No ADH | Collecting tubules impermeable to H2O so there is more H2O in urine, urine is more dilute, kidneys cant reabsorb the extra H2O it needs. |
ADH Present | Urine is more concentrated, collecting tubules are permeable to H2O so more water is reabsorbed so urine is more concentrated. |