| Question | Answer |
| Hierarchical Organization | Biosphere(entire planet), Ecosystem(biological organ), Community(populations living together), Species(Specific organisms), Population(Organisms) |
| Variables(Independent, Dependent, Control) | Independent(Manipulated), Dependent(Results from independent), Control(Doesn't change) |
| Emergent properties/Reductionism theory | Emergent(Whole is more than parts) / Reductionism(Larger organization made of smaller parts) |
| Primary Process responsible for evolutionary change | Natural selection, Variation, Mutations, and gene pool traits |
| Convergent Evolution | Species evolved and adapted parallel to each other in separate geographic locations |
| Adaption vs Extinction | Adaption(natural selection) Extinction(replaced by a fitter species to fill niche) |
| 4 elements that make up most of the human body | O,C,H,N=96% of body |
| Electron arrangement and how electron behaves | electrons determines how an atom behaves |
| Compounds, molecules, atoms | Compounds(2-3 molecules), Molecules(2+ elements), Atoms(Elements) |
| Covalent, Ionic, Hydrogen bonds | Covalent(Strongest/Definitive shape), Ionic(Magnetic/pulling charges), Hydrogen(easily broken and reformed) |
| Why ice floats | Hydrogen bonds freeze into place where it creates space between molecules |
| Acids/Bases | H+(Acids) OH-(Base) |
| 4 biological molecules | Carbs, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic Acid |
| Hydrolysis and dehydration reactions | Hydrolysis(breaks a macromolecule apart by adding water molecule)
Dehydration(Joins monomers together by removing a H20 |
| Starch as storage molecule(Shape) | Large strong storage in helical shape |
| Unsaturated fats | Kinks in c backbone so H+ cannot fit. |
| Amino Acids(peptide bonds) | Amino group and carboxyl group |
| Hypercholesterolemia (How it works) | Functional LDL receptors missing= accumulation of excess cholesterol in blood |
| Prokaryotic cells | DNA- about 1 chromosome, cell membrane |
| Size of prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic cells | 1/10 vs eukaryotic -> orgnalles, double membranes, more genes/chromosomes |
| Lysosomes | Break down old organelles-hydrolytic enzymes to digest waste |
| 2nd law of thermodynamics | unusable energy converted to heat, increase entropy->random disorganization |
| cycle of change from ADP to ATP, ATP to ADP | ADP->ATP= Phosphorylation
ATP->ADP=Hydrolysis |
| Enzymes:inhibitors/competitive inhibitors | Chemical interference attaches by covalent bonds causing reaction to become irreversible |
| How RNA is catalyzed | Ribosymes->RNA catalysts |
| Plasma membrane and permeability | Selective permeability-> only certain molecules can pass |
| Composition of outer surface of membranes | Carbohydrates, Gycloproteins, Gyclolipids |
| What does each glucose molecule produce | 38 ATP, 40% total energy, 60% Heat |
| Oxidation and reduction reactions | Oxidation(Loss of electrons) Reduction(Gain of electrons) |
| Final stage of oxidative phosphorylation | Chemiosmosis /
Electron transport chain |
| Pigment Absorption | Absorb low energy light from visible spectrum |
| Location of where the photosystem II takes place | Thylakoids |
| Purpose of ribulose bisphosphate | Recaptures co2 from air |
| Genes of Eukaryotic vs Prokaryotic cells | 30,000 vs 3,000 |
| M Phase | PMAT- G1, G2, M Phase
Cell division, Cytogenesis, Chromosome division |
| How cancer can spread(tumors) | Circulating system, cells separate from tumors. |
| Meiosis I: prophase | synapsis, crossing over, tetrads(4) |
| Anaphase | Pulled to the opposite poles, still in pairs. |
| Telophase | Cytokinesis, nucleoli reappear, nuclear envelope reappears. |
| Dominant vs Recessive | Equal Chance |
| Genetic Linkage | Genes close together, inherited together- directly proportional to distance apart. |
| Recessive disorders(Inherited alleles) | Carriers Aa-Heterozygous (Both parents), AA x AA(100% dominant), aa x aa(Not possible-Death before reproductive age) |
| sex-linked disorders(who does it affect and why?) | More males->shortened y chromosomes |
| Co-dominant alleles | same dominant traits together like AB blood |
| Birth defects (translocation) | Translocation(Fragment attaches to non-homologous chromosome) |
| DNA backbone and bonds | Sugar- Phosphate(Covalent bonds) |
| DNA nucleotide pairing | DNA= A w/ T G w/ C |
| RNA nucleotide pairing | RNA= A w/ U G w/ C |
| Model of DNA replication | Semi-conservative-> half parental molecule maintained |
| Jobs of DNA Polymerase, Ligase, Nuclease | polymerase(Adds nucleotides and proofreads Ligase(Paste fragments), Nuclease(DNA cutting enzyme) |
| Direction that transcription runs | 5 to 3 |
| Equation of protein synthesis | DNA to RNA to Proteins |
| Where transcription, translation occurs | Transcription(Nucleus) Translation(Cytoplasm) |
| Codons(What are they) | 3 nucleotide sequence(Amino Acids) |
| Anticodons(What are they and how do they pair) | 3 nucleotides sequence, complimentary to codon |
| Start and stop codons | AUG(Start) UAA,UAG,UGA (Stop) |
| The cap and tail | (not included in translocation) Protection during transport |
| What starts transcription | Promoter |
| Introns and Exons | Introns(blank regions) Exons(Coding regions) |
| Where does mRNA bind to | Small ribosomal unit |
| Purpose of tRNA | Transporter |
| Aneuploidy | Abnormal chromosomal # (Too many or too few) Too many-Down Syndrome Too few- Cri Du Chat |
| Reverse transcriptase | RNA is mutated and enters nucleus, makes DNA copy of RNA, mutates DNA permanently, RNA leaves to infect other cells. |
| Use of enzymes to make what | Reverse transcriptase enzymes |
| Proto-oncogenes | Normal gene that has potential to become engines (Mutation hot spots) |
| Cancer | Mutation w/in genes(Usually 4 or more) |
| Signal transduction pathways | Signals for rapid growth and division |
| Mutations in what kind of cells | Somatic cells |
| Tumors and cancer | Benign vs malignate-not all tumors are cancerous |
| BRCA1 and BRCA2 | tumor suppressor gene for breast tissue |
| What do activators bind to for gene regulation | Proteins |
| Are they always off or on | Off until gene expression turns on (except from Glycoses) |
| Histones | Packed around DNA to prevent gene expressions, beads, linkers |
| XX chromosomes in calico cats | Both xx must be turned on to create orange fur |
| How is each gene unique for gene expression | has its own promoter |
| what are enhancers(eukaryotic transcription) | DNA sequence |
| What does translation of mRNA produce | Protein |
| Homeotic gene | correct body parts placement |
| Homeoboxes | 180 nucleotide sequences similarity between mouse & fly |
| recombinant DNA technology uses | combine genes from different sources into single DNA molecules |
| What are plasmids | small circular DNA molecules |
| Where do they come from(plasmids) | Bacterium |
| What are restriction enzymes and approximately how many are there | Use to cut a DNA sequence at a specific sequence/ 100's different restriction enzymes |
| cDNA: What is it and why is it easy to work with? | Does not have introns (Complimentary DNA) |
| What is DNA technology and gene cloning used for in medications and diagnosis | used in human insulin, HGH, Vaccines |
| How can they be used | Sheeps milk-> Secrete protein for treatment cystic fiber |
| DNA microarray | thousands of different kinds single stranded DNA fragments |
| Gel electrophoresis: shorter and longer fragments | Short fragments travel farther |
| DNA charge | is negatively charged and moves toward positive poles |
| RFLPs | DNA fragments produced by the restriction enzymes |
| Gene Therapy | |
| PCR disadvantages | |
| Who is using GMs | |
| What are they | |
| Cloning | |
| Where do true stem cells have come from | 6 day old embryo (Blastocyst) |
