Question | Answer |
Hierarchical Organization | Biosphere(entire planet), Ecosystem(biological organ), Community(populations living together), Species(Specific organisms), Population(Organisms) |
Variables(Independent, Dependent, Control) | Independent(Manipulated), Dependent(Results from independent), Control(Doesn't change) |
Emergent properties/Reductionism theory | Emergent(Whole is more than parts) / Reductionism(Larger organization made of smaller parts) |
Primary Process responsible for evolutionary change | Natural selection, Variation, Mutations, and gene pool traits |
Convergent Evolution | Species evolved and adapted parallel to each other in separate geographic locations |
Adaption vs Extinction | Adaption(natural selection) Extinction(replaced by a fitter species to fill niche) |
4 elements that make up most of the human body | O,C,H,N=96% of body |
Electron arrangement and how electron behaves | electrons determines how an atom behaves |
Compounds, molecules, atoms | Compounds(2-3 molecules), Molecules(2+ elements), Atoms(Elements) |
Covalent, Ionic, Hydrogen bonds | Covalent(Strongest/Definitive shape), Ionic(Magnetic/pulling charges), Hydrogen(easily broken and reformed) |
Why ice floats | Hydrogen bonds freeze into place where it creates space between molecules |
Acids/Bases | H+(Acids) OH-(Base) |
4 biological molecules | Carbs, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic Acid |
Hydrolysis and dehydration reactions | Hydrolysis(breaks a macromolecule apart by adding water molecule)
Dehydration(Joins monomers together by removing a H20 |
Starch as storage molecule(Shape) | Large strong storage in helical shape |
Unsaturated fats | Kinks in c backbone so H+ cannot fit. |
Amino Acids(peptide bonds) | Amino group and carboxyl group |
Hypercholesterolemia (How it works) | Functional LDL receptors missing= accumulation of excess cholesterol in blood |
Prokaryotic cells | DNA- about 1 chromosome, cell membrane |
Size of prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic cells | 1/10 vs eukaryotic -> orgnalles, double membranes, more genes/chromosomes |
Lysosomes | Break down old organelles-hydrolytic enzymes to digest waste |
2nd law of thermodynamics | unusable energy converted to heat, increase entropy->random disorganization |
cycle of change from ADP to ATP, ATP to ADP | ADP->ATP= Phosphorylation
ATP->ADP=Hydrolysis |
Enzymes:inhibitors/competitive inhibitors | Chemical interference attaches by covalent bonds causing reaction to become irreversible |
How RNA is catalyzed | Ribosymes->RNA catalysts |
Plasma membrane and permeability | Selective permeability-> only certain molecules can pass |
Composition of outer surface of membranes | Carbohydrates, Gycloproteins, Gyclolipids |
What does each glucose molecule produce | 38 ATP, 40% total energy, 60% Heat |
Oxidation and reduction reactions | Oxidation(Loss of electrons) Reduction(Gain of electrons) |
Final stage of oxidative phosphorylation | Chemiosmosis /
Electron transport chain |
Pigment Absorption | Absorb low energy light from visible spectrum |
Location of where the photosystem II takes place | Thylakoids |
Purpose of ribulose bisphosphate | Recaptures co2 from air |
Genes of Eukaryotic vs Prokaryotic cells | 30,000 vs 3,000 |
M Phase | PMAT- G1, G2, M Phase
Cell division, Cytogenesis, Chromosome division |
How cancer can spread(tumors) | Circulating system, cells separate from tumors. |
Meiosis I: prophase | synapsis, crossing over, tetrads(4) |
Anaphase | Pulled to the opposite poles, still in pairs. |
Telophase | Cytokinesis, nucleoli reappear, nuclear envelope reappears. |
Dominant vs Recessive | Equal Chance |
Genetic Linkage | Genes close together, inherited together- directly proportional to distance apart. |
Recessive disorders(Inherited alleles) | Carriers Aa-Heterozygous (Both parents), AA x AA(100% dominant), aa x aa(Not possible-Death before reproductive age) |
sex-linked disorders(who does it affect and why?) | More males->shortened y chromosomes |
Co-dominant alleles | same dominant traits together like AB blood |
Birth defects (translocation) | Translocation(Fragment attaches to non-homologous chromosome) |
DNA backbone and bonds | Sugar- Phosphate(Covalent bonds) |
DNA nucleotide pairing | DNA= A w/ T G w/ C |
RNA nucleotide pairing | RNA= A w/ U G w/ C |
Model of DNA replication | Semi-conservative-> half parental molecule maintained |
Jobs of DNA Polymerase, Ligase, Nuclease | polymerase(Adds nucleotides and proofreads Ligase(Paste fragments), Nuclease(DNA cutting enzyme) |
Direction that transcription runs | 5 to 3 |
Equation of protein synthesis | DNA to RNA to Proteins |
Where transcription, translation occurs | Transcription(Nucleus) Translation(Cytoplasm) |
Codons(What are they) | 3 nucleotide sequence(Amino Acids) |
Anticodons(What are they and how do they pair) | 3 nucleotides sequence, complimentary to codon |
Start and stop codons | AUG(Start) UAA,UAG,UGA (Stop) |
The cap and tail | (not included in translocation) Protection during transport |
What starts transcription | Promoter |
Introns and Exons | Introns(blank regions) Exons(Coding regions) |
Where does mRNA bind to | Small ribosomal unit |
Purpose of tRNA | Transporter |
Aneuploidy | Abnormal chromosomal # (Too many or too few) Too many-Down Syndrome Too few- Cri Du Chat |
Reverse transcriptase | RNA is mutated and enters nucleus, makes DNA copy of RNA, mutates DNA permanently, RNA leaves to infect other cells. |
Use of enzymes to make what | Reverse transcriptase enzymes |
Proto-oncogenes | Normal gene that has potential to become engines (Mutation hot spots) |
Cancer | Mutation w/in genes(Usually 4 or more) |
Signal transduction pathways | Signals for rapid growth and division |
Mutations in what kind of cells | Somatic cells |
Tumors and cancer | Benign vs malignate-not all tumors are cancerous |
BRCA1 and BRCA2 | tumor suppressor gene for breast tissue |
What do activators bind to for gene regulation | Proteins |
Are they always off or on | Off until gene expression turns on (except from Glycoses) |
Histones | Packed around DNA to prevent gene expressions, beads, linkers |
XX chromosomes in calico cats | Both xx must be turned on to create orange fur |
How is each gene unique for gene expression | has its own promoter |
what are enhancers(eukaryotic transcription) | DNA sequence |
What does translation of mRNA produce | Protein |
Homeotic gene | correct body parts placement |
Homeoboxes | 180 nucleotide sequences similarity between mouse & fly |
recombinant DNA technology uses | combine genes from different sources into single DNA molecules |
What are plasmids | small circular DNA molecules |
Where do they come from(plasmids) | Bacterium |
What are restriction enzymes and approximately how many are there | Use to cut a DNA sequence at a specific sequence/ 100's different restriction enzymes |
cDNA: What is it and why is it easy to work with? | Does not have introns (Complimentary DNA) |
What is DNA technology and gene cloning used for in medications and diagnosis | used in human insulin, HGH, Vaccines |
How can they be used | Sheeps milk-> Secrete protein for treatment cystic fiber |
DNA microarray | thousands of different kinds single stranded DNA fragments |
Gel electrophoresis: shorter and longer fragments | Short fragments travel farther |
DNA charge | is negatively charged and moves toward positive poles |
RFLPs | DNA fragments produced by the restriction enzymes |
Gene Therapy | |
PCR disadvantages | |
Who is using GMs | |
What are they | |
Cloning | |
Where do true stem cells have come from | 6 day old embryo (Blastocyst) |