Question | Answer |
What is anatomy? | The study of structure |
What is physiology? | The study of the mechanisms of homeostasis |
What isn't regulated with diabetes? | Blood glucose levels |
What is the concentration of glucose? | 100mg/100mL |
What are the systems of coordination? | Integumentary (skin), skeletal, muscle, nervous system, endocrine |
What is the function of the digestive system for transport? | Break down glucose |
What purpose does the respiratory system serve for transport? | Supplies oxygen |
What is the purpose of the urinary system in terms of transport? | Dispose of waste |
What is the pathway that results in a response | Stimulus, endocrine cells (secrete), blood vessels, target cells, response. |
How are hormones produced? | From the chemical messenger by endocrine cells |
How are chemical messengers transported? | By the blood |
What function does insulin serve? | A hormone that helps to regulate the concentration of glucose in the blood |
What is the extracellular fluid of blood? | Blood plasma |
What does homeostasis refer to? | The relative (not absolute) constancy of the composition of extracellular fluid |
What are the two types of extracellular fluid? | Interstitial and plasma |
Which extracellular fluid is more abundant? | Interstitial |
What two organic compounds are not water soluble? | Oxygen and carbon dioxide |
What function does hemoglobin serve? | Greatly increases the ability of blood to transport oxygen |
Where is hemoglobin found? | In plasma or inside a RBC |
Is hemoglobin a plasma protein? | No |
What type of cell transports large amounts of oxygen? | RBC/ Erythrocyte |
What is the basic function of the circulatory system? | To transport things to and from cells |
What are the 3 ways things are transported in the body? | 1. Dissolved in plasma ie glucose
2. Bound to a plasma protein
3. Bound to an intracellular protein ie oxygen and hemoglobin |
What percentage of oxygen does hemoglobin transport? | 99% |
What are other names for hematocrit? | Formed elements and PCV (packed cell volume) |
What are the percentages for formed elements and plasma? | 45% formed elements and 55% plasma |
What are tissues of the body? | epithelial, muscle, connective/supportive |
Why is blood a tissue? | Because of the extracellular fluid (plasma) |
What makes RBC red? | Hemoglobin |
What does a dark red cell mean? | It is deoxygenated |
What does a light red cell mean? | It is oxygenated |
What does low hematocrit levels mean? | Low red blood cell count which means a problem transporting oxygen or anemia. Energy cannot be extracted from food. |
What is the purpose of the bicarbonate ion? | To trasport CO2. |
What percentage of bicarbonate is water soluble? | 85% |
How is urea excreted? | The amino group is removed from the amino acids, conversion of ammonia to urea then it is excreted |
Where is urea produced? | In the liver |
Urea production is a result of what being broken down? | Protein |
What is the path of travel for urea? | Liver, kidney, urine |
What transports urea? | Blood |
What is uremic poisoning? | Too much urea which results in kidney failure |
Is urea water soluble? | Yes |
What is the concentration of urea approximately? | 20mg/100mL |
Why do we need iron? | It is a component part of hemoglobin. Hemoglobin has 4 iron atoms |
Approximately how many grams of iron are located in the blood? | 3-4 |
What is the percentage range of transferring saturation? | 20-50% |
What is the approximate amount of iron lost per day? | 1-2 grams |
What is the location of iron intake? | The small intestine |
Can iron be dissolved in plasma? | No |
What is the most common type of anemia? | Iron deficiency anemia |
What does hepatic mean? | Liver |
What is a hepatocyte? | A liver cell |
What is ferritin? | An iron storage molecule |
What happens if there is too much iron in the liver? | It precipitates out |
What are the 4 functions of the liver? | 1. Produce most plasma proteins
2. Store iron bound to ferritin
3. Synthesize urea
4. Secrete hepcidin |
What does hepcidin do? | Blocks the absorption of iron to the liver. Tells the small intestine to stop absorption |
Is the liver an endocrine organ? If so why? | Yes, because it releases hormone |
What is the pH range of blood? | 7.35-7.45 |
Venous blood is slightly more acidic because of what? | The effect of CO2 |
Blood coming in has ____ CO2 than blood coming out | less |
What is the purpose of blood buffers? | The prevent dramatic pH changes by biding hydrogen ions |
What is the pH of urine | 6 |
At what pH does acidosis occur | 7.2 |
At what pH would death occur? | 7.0 |
What can hemoglobin do to temporarily reduce changes in pH? | Bind hydrogen ions |
Males are what percentage body fluid? Females? | Males 60%. Females 65% |
What fraction of fluid is intracellular? | 2/3 |
What is the total solute concentration of intracellular and extracellular fluid | 280 mOS/kg |
How much intracellular fluid does the average person have? | 42L |
What percentage of plasma is in the blood? | 55% |
If a person has 3L of plasma how many liters of blood do they have? | 6L |
If a person has 6L of blood how many liters of plasma do they have? | 3L |
How many quarts of blood does the average person have? Pints? | 5-6 quarts or 10-12 pints |
What is the primary solute in any extracellular fluid? | Na and Cl interstitial an plasma |
Why is plasma an unusual extracellular fluid? | It contains a significant amount of protein |
Explain electrophoresis. | The rate of migration is determine by the size and charge. (-) is the start with larger proteins (+) is the finish with smaller proteins |
What are albumins? | The smallest and most abundant plasma protein. (65%) |
What are the 3 globulins and what percentage do they make up? | Alpha, Beta, Gamma. 30% |
What type of globulins are antibodies? | Gamma globulins |
Fibrinogen is a component of what? | Plasma |
What does fibrinogen convert into? | Fibrin |
What are the 3 classes of antibodies? | IgA, IgM, and IgG |
The liver produces plasma proteins but does not produce what? | Immunoglobins |
Clotting= | Coagulation |
How does a clot form? | Fibrinogen polymerizes into fibrin by an enzyme called thrombin |
Which enzyme used for clotting is always in the blood? | Prothrombin |
Why type of fibers is formed in the clotting process? | Large, long, sticky fibers |
What are platelets? | Fragments of cells that play an important role in coagulation. |
How many RBC are in a microliter | 5 million |
What is the ratio of RBC to WBC | 700:1 |
What is the lifespan of a mature RBC (enucleate) | 120 days |
What is another name for a WBC | Leukocyte |
What makes of the formed elements? | Platelets, RBC, WBC |
How many RBC are removed per minute? | 200 million |
About how many RBC are there in the body? | 30 trillion |
What is the shape of an erythrocytes? | Small biconcave disc shaped |
Some hematopoietic stem cells in bone marrow can produce what? | Formed elements |
What is aplastic anemia? | A unique anemia where a person doesn't have adequate amounts of red bone marrow possibly due to radiation. |
What is hematopoiesis? | Blood formation |
Bone marrow is what type of tissue? | Hematopoietic tissue |
Where is most hematopoietic tissue found? Examples? | Flat bones like the sternum and ribs? |
What is leukopoiesis? | The production of WBC |
What unique ability do hematopoietic stem cells have? | The ability to become different formed elements |
What is the pathway for the lineage that gives rise to RBC? | Blood stem cell --> myeloid stem cell -->myeloid blast and platelet or --> RBC |
What is the pathway for the lineage that gives rise to WBC? | Blood stem cell --> lymphoid stem cell --> lymphoblast --> WBC |
What function does the spleen play? | Recognition and removal of old RBC. |
What does erythropoietin do? | Stimulate erythropoiesis hormone to make more RBC |
Why would we need more RBC? | Blood donation, high altitude locations, athletes (body responds to needs) |
What are the steps for oxygen level regulation? | 1. Low O2 blood levels (stimulus)
2. Kidneys increase production of erythropoietin
3. Stem cells increase RBC production
4. O2 blood levels returns to normal |
How is hematopoiesis regulated? | Hormonally |
What is the stimulus and response for O2 regulation? | Low O2 (hypoxia) is the stimulus and the response is increased RBC production and increased O2 delivery. |
What alternative way is erythropoietin available? | Injection |
An erythrocyte has the same size as what? | A capillary |
What is a normoblast?? | The last nucleated stage |
What is a reticulocyte? | First non nucleated stage |
What does it mean if you have more than 1% of reticulocytes? | You body is trying to rapidly replace blood due to loss |
Are the erythrocytes in circulation nucleated or enucleated? | Enucleated |
What is a tetrameric protein? | A protein with four subunits |
Each protein part (globin) is coded for how many genes and what are they? | 2, alpha and beta |
What is the non protein part of the subunit called? Where is it located? | Heme. The center |
What globin genes are located on chromosome 16? | 2 alpha globin genes |
What globin genes are located on chromosome 11? | 2 beta globin genes |
Do the alpha and beta globin genes have the same level of activity? | Yes |
What is Thalassemia? | One subunit is produced more than the other |
What is bilirubin? | Metabolic (nitrogenous) wast when hemoglobin is broken down and it is put into feces. |
What is the cause of sickle cell anemia? | A mutation in the beta globin gene where are person has 2 mutated genes |
What occurs with sickle cell anemia? | Cells break down fast and must be removed quickly. A person makes a lot of RBC and not enough. |
What are the genotypes for malaria susceptibility? | AA= susceptible to Malaria
Aa= resistant to Malaria but may have sickle cell occasionally
aa= resistant to Malaria but has fatal sickle cell |
Iron deficiency anemia is due to what? | Nutrition/diet lack of B12, Folic acid, and iron |
What is the part of hemoglobin that is not recycled? | Bilirubin |
What are the 2 major categories of pathogens? | Bacteria and viruses |
What is the function of an immune system? | To fight off disease causing organisms and pathogens |
What do leukocytes fight? | Pathogens |
Are bacteria typically intracellular or extracellular? | Extracellular |
Are viruses intracellular or extracellular | Intracellular |
What do killer cells prevent? | Virally infected cell multiplication |
What is the definition of humoral? | Body fluid |
Humoral immunity is effective against what type of pathogen? | Bacteria |
How many types of leukocytes are there? | 5 |
What type of cell produces antibodies? | B Cells |
How many leukocytes are in a microliter? | 7-9,000 |
What are the physical characteristics of leukocytes? | Larger, nucleated, no hemoglobin |
What two cells are considered lymphocytes? | B and T cells |
Where do all WBC come from? | Red bone marrow |
Where do lymphocytes become functional? | The thymus |
What does TD and TI mean? | Thymus dependent (T- cells) and thymus independent (B-cells) |
As you age what happens to the thymus? | It shrinks |
What is it called if you are born without a thymus? | Not immunocompetent |
What is the target of an immune response? | An antigen |
What invokes an immune response? | An antigen |
B-cells secrete _____ which bind to the ______ on the surface | antibodies, antigen |
What does the complement complex do? | Punches a hole (MAC, membrane attack complex) into the bacteria and causes lysis |
How is a cell marked for destruction? | The binding of an antibody |
The binding of an antigen to attract complement proteins is an example of what type of immunity? | Mediated (humoral) immunity |
The virally infected cells precent ____ from the virus on its surface? | Antigen |
How to Cytotoxic T cells kill the infected cell in 3 steps? | 1. Binds to the infected cell
2. Perforin makes holes in infected cells membrane
3. Infected cell lyses |