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Lymphatic vessels
Chapter 20, 21, 16
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What are the three parts of lymphatic system? | A network of lymphatic vessels, Lymph, Lymph nodes. |
| Lymph means: | clear water |
| Once interstitial fluid enters lymphatics, it is called ____. | lymph |
| Lymphatic system is a ___ system. | one-way system |
| True or false. Lymph flows toward the heart. | true |
| Lymph vessels include: | Lymphatic capillaries, lymphatic collecting vessels, lymphatic trunks and ducts. |
| ___ is similar to blood capillaries except very permeable. | Lymphatic capillaries |
| ___ is absent from bones, teeth, bone marrow, and the CNS, | lymphatic capillaries |
| ___: specialized lymph capillaries present in intestinal mucosa. | Lacteals |
| Lacte means | milk |
| chyle means | juice |
| ___ similar to veins except have thinner walls, with more internal valves. | lymphatic collecting vessels |
| ___ vessels in the skin travel with superficial veins | collecting |
| ___ vessels travel with arteries | Deep |
| ___ formed by the union of the largest collecting ducts | lymphatic trunks |
| ___ formed by paired lumbar, paired bronchomediastinal, paired subclavian, paired jugular trunks, and a single intestinal trunk. | lymphatic trunks |
| Lymph is delivered into one of two large ducts: | right lymphatic duct and thoracic duct |
| Right lymphatic ducts and thoracic duct drains: | RLD drains: right upper arm, right side of the head, thorax. Thoracic duct drains: the rest of the body. |
| Right lymphatic duct and thoracic duct, each empties lymph into venous circulation at the junction of the ____ and ___ on its own side of the body. | internal jugular, and subclavian veins. |
| Lymph transport: lymph is propelled by the following two methods: | Pulsations and contractions |
| Two main lymphoid cells | B cells and T cells |
| Lymphocytes is ___ of the immune system | the main warriors |
| ___ manage the immune response. attack and destroy foreign cells. | T cells |
| ___ produce plasma cells which secrete antibodies | B cells |
| ___ phagocytize foreign substances and help activate T cells | Macrophages |
| ___ capture antigens and deliver them to lymph nodes | Dendritic cells |
| ___ produce stroma that supports other cells in lymphoid organs. | Reticular cells |
| ___ houses and provides a proliferation site for lymphocytes and furnishes a surveillance vantage point. | Lymphoid tissue |
| 2 main types of lymphoid tissue: | diffuse lymphatic tissue, lymphatic follicles |
| ___ is the principal lymphoid organs of the body | lymph nodes |
| lymphoid nodes located near the body surface in ___, ___, and ___ regions of the body. | inguinal, axillary, and cervical regions |
| Functions of lymph nodes. | filter lymph, immune system |
| Function of lymph nodes which macrophages destroy microorganism and debris. | Filter lymph |
| Function of the lymph nodes which lymphocytes are activated and mount an attack against antigens. | immune system |
| ___ largest lymphoid organ and size of human fist. | spleen |
| ___ site of lymphocyte proliferation and immune surveillance and response. | spleen |
| ___cleanses the blood of aged cells and platelets debris | spleen |
| ___ stores breakdown RBC's iron for later reuse, and stores blood platelets | Spleen |
| __ site of fetal erythrocyte production (normally ceases after birth) | spleen |
| ___ has a fibrous capsule and trabeculae. contains lymphocytes, macrophages, and huge numbers of erythrocytes | Spleen |
| ___ Bi-lobed and important during early years of life. | Thymus |
| Thymus increases in size and is most active during ___. | childhood |
| Thymus stops growing during adolescence and then gradually ___. | atrophies |
| ___ differs from other lymphoid organs in important ways, it functions strictly in T lymphocyte maturation, it does not directly fight antigens. | thymus |
| ___ provide the environment in which T lymphocytes become immunocompetent. | Thymocytes |
| ___ simplest lymphoid organs, and named by location. | tonsils |
| ___ tonsils--at posterior end of the oral cavity | palatine |
| ___ tonsils--grouped at the base of the tongue | lingual |
| ___ tonsil--in posterior wall of the nasopharynx | pharyngeal |
| ___ tonsils--surrounding the openings of the auditory tubes into the pharynx | Tubal |
| ____ clusters of lymphoid follicles. In the wall of the distal portion of the small intestine. Similar structures are also found in the appendix | Peyer's patches |
| ___ and ____ Destroy bacteria, preventing them from breaching the intestinal wall. Generate memory lymphocytes | Peyer's patches and the appendix |
| MALT means | mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue |
| MALT including: ___, ___, and the ___ (Digestive tract). _____ in the walls of the bronchi (respiratory tract) | Peyer's patches, tonsils, and the appendix; Lymphoid nodules |
| ____ protects the digestive and respiratory systems from foreign matter | MALT= Mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue |
| ___ and ____ protects against antigens | T cells and B cells |
| antigens are ___ the body perceives as foreign (bateria, and their toxins (viruses), mismatched RBCs, cancer cells) | Anything |
| ___ resistance to disease | Immunity |
| What are the two intrinsic systems of immune system? | Innate and adaptive system |
| ___ is a nonspecific defense system. Existing in one from birth, natural, within.. | Innate system |
| ___ specific defense system. Serving or able to adapt/change. | Adaptive system |
| Immun means | Free |
| ___ is one of innate defense system, which the external body membranes (intact skin and mucosae) | First line defense |
| ___ is one of the innate defense system, which antimicrobial proteins, phagocytes, and other cells (M/H describe this as "an elite fighting force equipped w/ high-tech weaponry") | Second line of defense |
| In innate defense system, ___ is its most important mechanism. | inflammation |
| In innate defenses, ____ provide similar mechanical barriers | Mucosae |
| ___ is resistance to weak acids and bases, bacterial enzymes, and toxins. | Keratin |
| Skin, mucous membranes, and their secretions are the example of ___ in innate defenses. | surface barriers |
| What are some protective chemicals that can inhibit or destroy microorganisms? In the skin, sebum, sweat, stomach, eye, oral cavity, and in digestive or respiratory pathways. | Acidity of skin secretions, lipids (sebum), dermcidin (sweat), HCl and protein-digesting enzymes (stomach), lactrimal fluid (eye), saliva (oral cavity), Mucus (digestive or resp. tract.) |
| What are the two respiratory systems modifications? | mucus-coated hairs in the nose. Cilia of upper resp. tract, sweep dust- and bacteria-laden mucus from lower respiratory passages. |
| Name cells and chemicals that are necessary if microorganisms invade deeper tissues. | Phagocytes, natural killer (nk) cells, inflammatory response, antimicrobial proteins, and fever. |
| opsonization means | to make tasty |
| ___ adheres to pathogen or debris | phagocyte |
| What are the modes of destruction of pathogens? | acidification and digestion, respiratory burst event, oxidizing chemicals, defensins |
| ___ are antimicrobial chemicals that are produced by the neutrophils and pierce the pathogens membrane. | defensins |
| ____ "police" the body in blood and lymph, a.k.a PIT BULLS of the defense system. | Natural killer (NK) cells |
| large granular lymphocytes | Natural killer cells |
| target cells that lack "sel" cell-surface receptors | NK cells |
| Induce in apoptosis in cancer cells and virus infected cells | NK cells |
| Secrete potent chemicals that enhance the inflammatory response | NK cells |
| ___ are inflammatory responses that triggered whenever body tissues are injured or infected. | physical trauma, intense heat, irritating chemicals, infection (viral, fungi or bacterial) |
| Prevents the spread of damaging agent, disposes of cell debris and pathogens, and sets the stage for repair are: | Benefits of inflammatory response. |
| what are the five cardinal signs of acute inflammation? | Redness, heat, swelling, pain, and sometimes impairment of function. |
| ___ and ___ are the most important antimicrobial proteins. | interferons (IFNs) and complement proteins |
| Antimicrobial proteins that attack microorganisms directly and hinder microorganism ability to reproduce. | IFNs and complement protein |
| ___ are essentially nucleic acids surrounded by a protein coat and they lack cellular machinery to generate ATP or synthesize proteins. | Viruses |
| some viral cells are activated to secrete ___ to help protect cells not infected yet. | interferons |
| ___ produce by a variety of body cells | interferons |
| lymphocytes produce ___ or ___ interferon | gamma; immune |
| most other WBC's produce ___ interferon | alpha |
| fibroblast produce ___ interferon | beta |
| interferons also activate macrophages and mobilize ___ cells. | natural killer cells |
| Anti viral, reduce inflammation, and activate macrophages and mobilize NK cells are: | functions of interferons |
| Antiviral agents against hepatitis and genital warts virus and multiple sclerosis (MS) treatment are ____ interferons. | genetically engineered |
| ___ a systemic response to invading microorganisms | fever |
| ___ and ___ exposed to foreign substances secrete pyogens | leukocytes and macrophges |
| ___ reset the body's thermostat upward | pyogens |
| pyro means | fire |
| High fevers are dangerous because ___. | heat denatures enzymes |
| causes the liver and spleen to sequester iron and zinc (needed by microorganisms). Increases metabolic rate, which speeds up repair are benefits of: | moderate fever |
| ___ protects against infectious agents and abnormal body cells. Amplifies the inflammatory response, activates complement. | adaptive immune system |
| ___ immune response if specific, systemic, and has memory | adaptive |
| two separate overlapping arms of adaptive immune response are: | humoral (antibody-mediated) immunity, cellular (cell-mediated) immunity |
| ___ substances that can mobilize the adaptive defenses and provoke an immune response | antigens |
| antigents are also known as | intruders |
| haptein means | to grasp |
| important functional properties of complete antigens | immunogenicity, reactivity |
| Examples of complete antigens | foreign protein, polysaccharides, lipids, and nucleic acid |
| Haptens is ____ antigen | incomplete |
| Examples of Haptens | poison ivy, animal dander, detergents, and cosmetics. |
| ___ are small molecules (peptides, nucleotides, and hormones). Not immunogenic by themselves but only when attached to body proteins. Cause the immune system to mount a harmful attack | Haptens (incomplete antigens) |
| Example of self antigen | Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) proteins |
| MHC proteins found on virtually all body cells | Class I MHC proteins |
| MHC proteins found on certain cells in the immune response | Class II MHC proteins |
| In infected cells, ____ proteins display fragments of foreign antigens, which help mobilize | MHC proteins |
| 3 crucial cell types of adaptive immune system | B Lymphocytes (B cells), T Lymphocytes (T cells), and Antigen-presenting cells (APCs) |
| ____ cells do not respond to specific antigens. Play essential auxillary roles in immunity | Antigen-presenting cells |
| ___ originate in red bone marrow. | Lymphocytes |
| ___ mature in red bone marrow | B cells |
| ___ mature in Thymus | T cells |
| When mature, B cells and T cells have ___ and ____ | immunocompetence and self-tolerance |
| lymphocytes are able to recognize and bind to a specific antigen | immunocompetence |
| lymphocytes unresponsive to self antigens so that it does not attack the body's own cells | self-tolerance |
| Apoptosis means | cell death |
| T cells mature in the thymus under ___ and ___ selection pressures | positive and negative |
| ___ are inactivated ( a phenomenon called anergy) if they escape from the bone marrow | B cells |
| ___ make up to a billion different types of antigen receptors | lymphocytes |
| ___ determines which foreign substances the immune system wil recognize and resist | Genes |
| What are the major types of Antigen presenting cells APCs? | Dendritic cells, macrophages, and B cells |
| Engulf antigens, and present fragments of anigens to be recognized by T cells are the major roles of ____ cells. | Antigen-presenting cells |
| ___ uses lymphocytes, APCs, and specific molecules to identify and destroy non-self substances | Adaptive immunity |
| ___ immunity conferred by antibodies present in blood plasma and other body fluids. | humoral immunity |
| if the lymphocyte is a B cells the antigen provokes a ____ response and ___ is produce | humoral immune; antibodies |
| b cells encounter antigens and produce antibodies against them is called ___ humoral immunity | Active |
| B cells are not challenged by antigens is called ___ humoral immunity | passive |
| Once researchers realized that secondary responses are more vigorous than primary responses, the race was on develop ____ to "prime" the immune response by providing a first meeting with the antigen | Vaccines |
| two types of passive humoral immunity | naturally acquired, and artificially acquired |
| ____ is a type of passive humoral immunity, which antibodies delivered to a fetus via the placenta or to infant through milk | naturally acquired |
| types of passive humoral immunity which injection of serum, such as gamma globulin | artificially acquired |
| Antibodies is also know as | immunoglobulins |
| ___ are proteins secreted by plasma cells and are capable of binding specifically with antigen detected by B cells | immunoglobulins |
| four varieties of organ transplant | autografts, isografts, allografts, and xenografts |
| organ transplant from one body site to another in the same person | autografts |
| organ transplant between identical twins | isografts |
| organ transplant between individuals who are not identical twins | allografts |
| organ transplant from another animal species | xenografts |
| cancer of the B cells called ____ disease | Hodgkin's disease |
| cripples the immune system by interfering with the activity of helper T cells, and characterized by severe weight loss, night sweats, and swollen lymph nodes | Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) |
| HIV multiplies in lymph nodes throughout the ___ period. Symptoms appear in a ____ to __ years | asymptomatic; few months to 10 yrs |
| immune system loses the ability to distinguish itself from foreign, and production of autoantibodies and sensitized T cells that destroy body tissues called ____ disease | Autoimmune diseases |
| Examples of autoimmune diseases | multiple sclerosis (MS), Myasthenia gravis, Graves' disease, Type I diabetes mellitus (DM), Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), Glomerulonephritis, Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) |
| Autoimmune disease that destroys the myelin of the white matter of the brain and spinal cord | Multiple Sclerosis (MS) |
| Autoimmune disease that impair communication between nerves and skeletal muscles | Myasthenia gravis |
| Autoimmune disease that prompts the thyroid to produce excessive amounts of thyroxine | Graves' disease |
| Autoimmune disease that destroys pancreatic beta cells, resulting in a deficit of insulin and inability to use carbohydrates | Type I diabetes mellitus (DM) |
| A systemic disease that particularly affects the kidneys, heart, lungs, and skin | systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) |
| autoimmune disease that cause severe impairment of kidney function | Glomerulonephritis |
| Autoimmune disease that systematically destroys joints | Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) |
| Immune responses to a perceived (otherwise harmless) threat | hypersensitivities |
| ___ hypersensitivity begin in seconds after contact with allergen. Reaction may be local or systemic. | immediate hypersensitivity |
| systemic response to an allergen that directly enters the blood. ___ and ___ cells are enlisted throughout the body | anaphylactic shock; basophils and mast cells |
| Treatment of anaphylactic shock | epinephrine |
| allergic contact dermatitis is (e.g. poison ivy) is an example of ___ hypersensitivities | Delayed |
| immune system stem cells develop in ___ and ___ by the 9th week | liver and spleen |
| the immune system is impaired by ___ and ___ | stress and depression |
| with ___, the immuen system begins to wane, and incidence of cancer increases | age |
| True or False. Innate and adaptive defenses do not interwined | false: they are deeply interwined |
| Any congenital or acquired condition that causes immune cells, phagocytes, or complement to behave abnormally called | immunodeficiencies |
| Acts with the nervous system to coordinate and integrate the activity of body cells. influences metabolic activities by means of hormones transported in the blood. responses occur more slowly but tend to last longer than those of the nervous system | endocrine system |
| Endocrine glands include: | pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, and pineal glands |
| example of organs that produce both hormones and exocrine products are: | gonads and pancreas |
| the ___ has both neural and endocrine functions | hypothalamus |
| tissues and organs that produce hormones are: | adipose cells, thymus, cells in the walls of small intestine, stomach, kidneys, and heart |
| long distance chemical signals that travel in the blood or lymph | hormones |
| chemical that exert effect on the same cells that secrete them | autocrines |
| locally acting chemicals that affect cells other than those that secrete them | paracrines |
| __ and __ are local chemical messengers and will not be considered part of the endocrine system | paracrines and autocrines |
| Two main classes of chemistry hormones | amino acid-based hormones, steroids |
| In up regulation, target cells form ___ receptors in response to the hormone | more |
| In down regulation, target cells ___ receptors in response to the hormone | lose |
| __ circulates in the blood either free or bound | hormones |
| __ and __ hormone are attached to plasma proteins | steroids and thyroid |
| The concentration of circulating hormone reflects: | rate of release, and speed of inactivation and removal from the body |
| Hormones are removed from the blood by | degrading enzymes, kidneys, liver, half-life |
| the time required for a hormone's blood level to decrease by half | half-life |
| Multiple hormones may interact in several ways | permissiveness, synergism, antagonism |
| one hormone cannot exert its effects without another hormone being present | permissiveness |
| more that one hormone produces the same effects on a target cell | synergism |
| one or more hormones opposes the action of another hormone | antagonism |
| __ of hormones are controlled by negative feedback systems. vary only within a narrow desirable range | blood levels |
| Hormones are synthesized and released in response to stimuli, examples are: | humoral, neural, and hormonal stimuli |
| the ___ modifies the stimulation of endocrine glands and their negative feedback mechanisms | nervous system |
| What is the result when the hypothalamus and the sympathetic nervous system are activated: | body glucose levels rise |
| The pituitary gland(hypophysis) has two major lobe | posterior pituitary and anterior pituitary lobe |
| What are the anterior pituitary hormones? | Growth hormone (GH), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) o thyrotropin, Adrenocorticotropic (ACTH), Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), Luteinizing hormone (LH), Prolactin (PRL) |
| All anterior pituitary hormones activate cyclic AMP second-messenger systems at their targets | GH |
| TSH, ACTH, FSH, and LH are all ___ hormones (regulate the secretory action of other endocrine glands) | tropic |
| Produce by somatotrophs | Growth hormone |
| Stimulates most cells, but targets bone and skeletal muscle | Growth hormone |
| Promotes protein synthesis and encourages use of fats for fuel | Growth hormone |
| In growth hormone, most effects are mediated idirectly by ___. | insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) |
| Homeostatic imbalances of growth hormone: Hypersecretion in children? Adult? | Children: gigantism; Adult: acromegaly |
| Homeostatic imbalance of growth hormone: Hyposecretion in children: | Pituitary dwarfism |
| Target organs of growth hormone. | liver, skeletal muscle, bone, and cartilage |
| Produce by thyrotrophs of the anterior pituitary. | thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) |
| Secreted by corticotrophs of the anterior pituitary | Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) |
| secreted by gonadotrophs of the anterior pituitary | Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing hormone (LH) |
| FSH stimulates ___ production. | gamete (egg or sperm) |
| __ promotes production of gonadal hormones | Luteinizing hormone (LH) |
| Absent from the blood in prepubertal boys and girls | Gonadotropins |
| Secreted by lactotrophs of the anterior pituitary, and stimulates milk production | Prolactin (PRL) |
| lactation means | milk production |
| What are the hormones of posterior pituitary? | antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin |
| ___ and __ are release in response to nerve impulse | ADH and oxytocin |
| oxy means:, tocia means: | rapid; childbirth |
| stimulated uterine contractions during childbirth | oxytocin |
| plays a role in sexual arousal and orgasm in males and females | oxytocin |
| triggers milk ejection in women producing milk (lactation) | oxytocin |
| Hypothalamic osmoreceptors respond to changes in the solute concentration of the blood. If the solute concentration is __, ADH is synthesized and released, inhibiting urine formation. | High |
| Homeostatic Imbalances of ADH. ADH deficiency is called____, and ADH hypersecretion is called ____ | diabetes insipidus; syndrome of inappropriate ADH secretion (SIADH) |
| diabetes means | overflow |
| insipidus means | tasteless |
| Thyroid gland consists of two lateral lobes connected by a median mass called the ___. Composed of follicles that produce the glycoprotein called___. | isthmus; thyroglobulin |
| ___(thyroglobulin + iodine) fills the lumen of the follicles and is the precursor of thyroid hormone | Colloid |
| Parafollicular cells in thyroid gland produce the hormone called ___ | calcitonin |
| major metabolic hormone. Increases metabolic rate and eat production (calorigenic effect) | thyroid hormone |
| __ hormone plays a role in maintenance blood pressure, regulation of tissue growth, development of skeletal and nervous systems, and reproductive capabilities | thyroid hormone |
| Homeostatic Imbalances of TH: Hypersecretion in aduls called ___, hyposecretion in infants called ___, hypersecretion is called ____. | Myxedema (mucous swelling) a.k.a (colloidal); cretinism; Graves' disease |
| Calcitonin targets the ___ where it inhibits osteoclast activity and stimulates calcium uptake and incorporation into bone matrix. | skeleton |
| ho important role in human | calcitonin |
| 4 to 8 tiny glands embedded in the posterior aspect of the thyroid. Contains oxyphil cells and chief cells that secrete ___ hormone . | parathyroid glands; parathyroid hormone (parathormone) |
| Most important hormone in calcium homeostasis, important for transmission of nerve impulses, muscle contractions and blood clotting | PTH |
| Homeostatic imbalances of PTH: | hyperparathyroidism-usually to a parathyroid gland. hypoparathyroidism-usually follows parathyroid gland trauma. |
| Homeostatic imbalance of PTH that can progess to respiratory paralysis and death if untreated. | Hypoparathyroidism |
| ad means | near |
| renal means | kidney |
| Paired, pyramid-shaped organs atop the kidneys | adrenal glands |
| structurally and functionally, adrenal glands are two glands in one: | adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex |
| three layers of adrenal cortex | zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata, zona reticularis |
| Homeostatic imbalances of aldosterone: | aldosteronism |
| Keep blood sugar relatively constant. Maintain blood pressure by increasing the action of vasoconstrictors | Glucocorticoids (cortisol) |
| ___ is the most significant glucocorticoid | costisol |
| Homeostatic imbalances of glucocorticoids: Hypersecretion___, Hyposecretion___ | cushing's syndrome; addison's disease |
| Gonadocorticoids (sex hormones) most are ___ that are converted to testosterone in tissue cells or estrogens in femals | androgens (male sex hormones) |
| ___ may contribute to the onset of puberty, the appearance of secondary sex characteristics, and sex drive | Gonadocorticoids (sex hormones) |
| ___ cells secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine | chromaffin cells |
| These hormones cause blood glucose levels to rise, blood vessels to constrict, the heart to beat faster, blood to be diverted to the brain, heart, and skeletal muscle. | epinephrine and norepinephrine |
| __ stimulated metabolic activities, bronchial dilation, and blood flow to skeletal muscles and the heart | epinephrine |
| ___ influences peripheral vasoconstriction and blood pressure | norepinephrine |
| small gland hanging from the roof of third ventricle | pineal gland |
| pinealocytes secrete ___, derived from serotonin | melatonin |
| ___ may affect timing of sexual maturation and puberty, day/night cycles, physiological processes that show rhythmic variations (body temperature, sleep, appetite) | melatonin |
| Triangular gland behind the stomach, has both exocrine and endocrine cells | pancreas |
| pancreatic ____ cells produce glucagon (a hyperglycemic hormone) | Alpha cells |
| pnacreatic ___ cells produce insulin (a hypoglycemic hormone) | Beta cells |
| Major target of glucagon is the ___ where it promotes glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, and release of glucose to the blood. | liver |
| lowers blood glucose levels, enhance membrane transport of glucose into fat and muscle cells, participates in neuronal development and learning and memory, inhibits glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis are the effect of ___. | insulin |
| Homeostatic imbalances of insulin: | Diabetes mellitus (DM) and Hyperinsulinism |
| Gonads produce ___ | steroid sex hormones |
| Ovaries produce | estrogen and progesterone |
| The ___ secretes estrogens, progesterone, and human chorionic gonadotropin (Hcg) | placenta |
| __ is the human pregnancy hormone | Hcg |
| Testes produce | testosterone |
| Other hormone producing structures | heart, Gastrointestinal tract, thymus, skeleton (osteoblasts), kidneys, skin and adipose tissue. |
| exposure to pesticides, industrial chemicals, arsenic, dioxin, and soil and water pollutants disrupts ___ functions | hormone |
| ___ are vulnerable to the effects of pollutants | sex hormones, thyroid hormones, and glucocorticoids |
| Interference with glucocorticoids may help explain ___ in certain areas | high cancer rates |
| ___ undergo significant changes with age and become unresponsive to gonadotropins | ovaries |
| ___ diminishes with age, but effect is not usually seen until very old age | testosterone |
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