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CELLULAR RESPIRATION
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| 3.7.1 Define cell respiration | Cell respiration is the controlled release of energy from organic compounds in cells to form ATP. organic compounds (e.g. glucose, fat) broken down to make ATP Can be aerobic or anaerobic Every cell produces its own ATP |
| 3.7.2 State that in cell respiration... | Glucose in cytoplasm broken down by glycolysis into pyruvate, with a small yield of ATP |
| 3.7.3 Explain that, during anaerobic cell respiration, pyruvate can be converted into the cytoplasm into lactate, or ethanol and CO2, with no further yield of ATP | If no oxygen available, pyruvate remains in cytoplasm and converted to waste product to be removed from cell In humans, waste product = lactate (lactic acid) In yeast, waste products = ehtanol and CO2 No ATP produced |
| 3.7.4 Explain that, during aerobic cell respiration, pyruvate can be broken down in the mitochondrion into CO2 and H2O with a large yield of ATP | If oxygen avail, pyruvate absorbed by mitochondrion, then broken down to CO2 and H2O inside mitochondrion Large amount of ATP produced |
| 8.1.1 State what oxidation and reduction are. | Oxidation = the loss of electrons from an element; frequently involves gaining oxygen or losing hydrogen Reduction = gain of electrons; involves losing oxygen or gaining hydrogen |
| 8.1.2 Outline the process of glycolysis (include phosphorylation, lysis, oxidation and ATP formation) | Glycolysis = in cytoplasm enzymes help oxidize glucose into 2 pyruvates, and small amount of ATP released (does not require oxygen) |
| 8.1.2 (continued) Phosphorylation | 1) Phosphorylation: the adding of a phosphate group. - Two phosphate groups added to each molecule of glucose (forms hexose biphosphate) - two molecules of ATP provide PO4 groups - this reduces activation nrg, making subsequent rxns possible |
| 8.1.2 (continued) Lysis | Lysis = splitting of molecules - hexose biphosphate split to form two molecules of triose phosphate |
| 8.1.2 (continued) Oxidation | Oxidation (in this context) = removal of two H atoms from each triose phosphate molecule - nrg released is used to link on anthr phosphate group > produces 3-carbon compound carrying two phosphate groups - meanwhile NAD+ takes away the H atoms |
| 8.1.2 (continued) ATP formation | - the two PO4 groups are removed from each triose, creating two pyruvate groups - the four PO4 groups are given to 4 ADP > results in 4 ATP |
| 8.1.2 (continued) Summary of GLYCOLYSIS | - One glucose converted to two pyruvates - net yield of two ATP molecules - occurs in cytoplasm - two NAD+ converted to two NADH + H+ |
| 8.1.3 Draw and label a diagram showing the structure of a mitochondrion as seen in electon micrographs | see notes |
| 8.1.4 Explain aerobic respiration (link rxn, Krebs cycle, role of NADH + H+, electron transport chain, role of oxygen) | Link rxn (occurs in mitochondria)= 1) NAD+ in matrix remove H from pyruvate(oxidation)and CO2 removes itself (decarboxylation) 2) whole conversion = oxidative decarboxylation 3) product = acetyl group (COCH3), which is accepted by Coenzyme A (acetyl C |
| 8.1.4 (continued) Krebs Cycle | *cycles twice (1 for each glucose) 1) acetyl CoA combines with C4 (CoA leaves) > becomes C6 (citric acid) 2) C6 > C5 = oxidation + decarboxylation 3) C5 > C4 = ditto 4) C4 = oxidation (FAD>FADH2 & NAD+ to NADH2)+ substrate-lvl phosphorylation (ADP> |
| 8.1.4 (continued) Krebs Cycle Summary | After two cycles: 6 NADH2, 2FADH2, 4CO2, 2ATP |
| 8.1.4 (continued) the role of NADH+H+ | Carries electrons to the electrons and hydrogen atom to electron transport system |
| 8.1.4 (continued) electron transport chain | 1) dehydrogenation 2) large electrochemical gradient and at the same time, oxidative phosphorylation 3) chemiosmosis 4) oxygen combines with 2e and H+ to make water |
| Oxidative phosphorylation | At three points along the chain, nrg given up to make ATP. ATP synthase makes ATP by using nrg released during oxidation |
| Chemiosmosis | ATP synthase transports hydrogen protons back down the concentration gradient (from space btwn inner and outer membranes to matrix), and this causes part of ATP synthase to rotate, driving the production of ATP (enzymatically joining ADP with P group) |
| 8.1.4 (continued) the role of oxygen | Combines with electrons and hydrogen ions to maintain electron flow along the transport chain and continues the conversion of NADH + H+ to NAD+. This maintains a supply of NAD+ in the mitochondrion so that the link rxn and Krebs cycle could continue. |
| 8.1.5 Explain oxidative phosphorylation in terms of chemiosmosis. | The method used to couple the release of energy by oxidation to ATP production is known as chemiosmosis. |
| 8.1.6 Explain the relationship btwn the structure of the mitochondrion and its function. | Matrix = contains enzymes for Krebs cycle and link rxn Cristae = increase surface area available for oxidative phosphorylation. |
| 8.1.6 (continued) | Inner membrane = contains electron transport chains and ATP synthase Space btwn inner and outer = small space is ideal for forming high proton[..]>where protons are pumped into |
| 8.1.6 (continued) | Outer membrane = separates contents from rest of cell, creates compartment with ideal conditions for aerobic respiration |
| 8.2.1 Draw and label a diagram showing the structure of a chloroplast as seen in electron micrographs | see notes |
| 8.2.2 State that photosynthesis... | Photosynthesis consists of light-dependent and light-independent reactions |
| 3.8.1 State that photosynthesis involves... | Photosynthesis involves the conversion of light energy into chemical energy |
| 3.8.2 State that light from the sun is composed of a range of wavelengths (colors) | Light from the sun composed of a range of wavelengths including red, green, and blue. |
| 3.8.3 State that chlorophyll is the main photosynthetic pigment. | Chlorophyll is the main photosynthetic pigment. |
| 3.8.4 Outline the differences in absorption of red, blue and green light by chlorophyll | Chlorophyll = pigment that absorbs red & blue light, and transmits green (does not absorb as much green light) |
| 3.8.5 State that light energy is used to produce ATP, and to split water molecules (photolysis) to form oxygen and hydrogen | Light energy absorbed for two purposes: 1) produce ATP 2) to split water molecules into oxygen and hydrogen (photolysis) |
| 3.8.6 State that ATP and hydrogen (derived from the photolysis of water) are used to fix CO2 to make organic molecules. | ATP gained from #1 and hydrogen gained from photolysis (#2)used to fix CO2 to make organic molecules. Carbon fixation = conversion of C(g) to C in solid compounds. Occurs b/c CO2 is absorbed for use in photosynthesis. |
| 3.8.7 Explain that the rate of photosynthesis can be measured directly by he production of oxygen or the uptake of CO2, or indirectly by an increase in biomass. | Production of O2 = collect bubbles of oxygen when aquatic plants carry out photosynthesis to determine their volume > thus measure rate of photosynthesis |
| 3.8.7 (continued) | Uptake of CO2 = if CO2 absorbed from water, pH of water rises. Monitor pH of water when leaves take in CO2 from air/water around them. Use pH indicators/meters |
| 3.8.7 (continued) | Increases in biomass = rate of increase in biomass gives indirect measure of rate of photosynthesis in plants. Measure biomass of batches of plants each time when harvested. |
| 3.8.8 Outline the effects of temperature, light intensity and CO2 concentration on the rate of photosynthesis | Light intensity = see graph in book (pg.21) @ low-med light: rate is directly proportional to light intensity @ high light: rate reaches a plateau |
| 3.8.8 (continued)Effect of temperature | Temperature = p.21 Exponential increase of rate as temperature increases till an optimum temp is reached, then the rate falls steeply after optimum is passed |
| 3.8.8 (continued)Effect of CO2 concentration | CO2 concentration = pg.21 @very low [..]: no photosynthesis (a gap in the graph) @low-fairly high [..]: rate directly proportional to CO2 [..] @very high [..]: rate reaches plateau |
| 8.2.3 Explain the light-dependent rxns | Light > chlorophyll > photoactivation > e- passed along chain of carriers in thylakoid membrane (pII to pI)>chemiosmosis> non-cyclic photophosphorylation -last e to NADP+ makes NADPH -photolysis @pII |
| 8.2.4 Explain photophosphorylation in terms of chemiosmosis | proton gradient releases nrg to synthesize ATP when crosses membrane |
| 8.2.5 Explain the light-independent rxns | Calvin Cycle: RuBP + CO2 + rubisco> carboxylation> glycerate 3-phosphate > reduction> triose phosphate> 1/6 to glucose phosphate (many condensate to make starch), 5/6 regenerate RuBP (need ATP) |
| 8.2.6 Explain the relationship between the structure of the chloroplast and its function | thylakoid membranes - large area ensures chloroplast has large light-absorbing capacity Stroma - contains enzymes and substrates for Calvin cycle > speeds up process |
| 8.2.7 Explain the relationship btwn the action spectrum and the absorption spectrum of photosynthetic pigments in green plants | |
| 8.2.8 Explain the concept of limiting factors in photosynthesis, with reference to light intensity, temperature and concentration of CO2 | Rate determined by slowest step, changes in other factors=no effct Light intensity=production of NADPH , ATP, and reduction of glycerate3-phosphate (usually not limiting factor) CO2[..]=production of glycerate3-phosphate (often lf) Temp=slow rxn if low |
| 9.1.1 Draw and label plant diagrams to show the distribution of tissues in the stem and leaf of a dicotyledonous plant. | see notes |
| 9.1.2 Outline three differences btwn the structures of dicot and monocot plants | 1) mono = parallel veions, di = netlike 2) mono = roots w/ no branching, di = branching 3) mono = stamen & organs in multiples of 3, di = multiples of 4 or 5 4) mono = vascular bundles randomly spread in stem, di = in a ring near outside of stem |
| 9.1.3 Explain the relationship btwn the distribution of tissues int he leaf and the functions of these tissues | Upper epidermis=top,waxy>prevent water loss when heated Lower epidermis=thinner b/c cooler position Palisade mesophyll=densely packed with chloroplasts b/c light intensity highest Spongy mesophyll=few chloroplasts b/c main gas xchange surface;near stom |
| 9.1.4 Identify modifications of roots, stems and leaves for different functions: bulbs, stem tubers, storage roots and tendrils | Leaf modifications > bulbs - leaf bases enlarge, forms underground organ known as bulb (in some monocot plants) -looks like: series of leaves fitting inside each other - use for food storage e.g. onion, garlic |
| 9.1.4 (continued) stems | Stem modifications > stem tubers - stem grow downwards into soil; sections of stem develop into tubers (in some dicots) - look like: vascular bundles arranged in ring; therefore a stem - food storage e.g. potato |
| 9.1.4 (continued) roots | Root modifications > storage roots - roots swell with food - look like: vasc tissue still in centre - food storage e.g. carrots |
| 9.1.4 (continued) tendrils | another modification of leaf > tendrils - narrow outgrowths that rotate through air until touch smth solid (and they attach to tht, and climb upward) -for support e.g. peas |
| 9.1.5 State that dicotyledonous plants have apical and lateral meristems | Meristem = regions where cells continue to divide and grow throughout lifetime Apical meristems = meristems at tip of root and tip of stem (@apex of root and stem); in flowering plants > allow for elongation of roots and stems |
| 9.1.5 (continued) Lateral meristems | young stems = cambium in vascular bundles older stems = complete ring around stem - makes roots and stems thicker e.g. rings on tree trunks |
| 9.1.6 Compare growth due to apical and lateral meristems in dicotyledonous plants | Growth in apical meristems allows roots and stems to elongate; produces new leaves and flowers Lateral meristems makes roots and stems thicker, with extra xylem and phloem tissue |
| 9.1.7 Explain the role of auxin in phototropism as an example of the control of plant growth. | Auxin = plant hormone; promotes growth - mechanism: secretes H+ into cell walls; loosens cellulose fibres connections; allows cell expansion |
| 9.1.7 (continued) | - controls phototropism (directional growth in response to light)by redistributing auxin to shadier side of shoot tips - thereby promotes more growth on shadier side, causes shoot to bend towards light refer to p.87 for photoperiodic control of flower |
| 9.2.1 Outline how the root system provides a large surface area for mineral ion and water uptake by means of branching and root hairs | Branching of roots = increase S.A. growth of root hairs = increase S.A. |
| 9.2.2 List ways in which mineral ions in the soil move to the root | - diffusion of mineral ions - water flow; carries minerals and ions through soil - through fungal hyphae > grows around roots in mutualistic relationship - rate of absorption affected by the method of ion movement |
| 9.2.3 Explain the process of mineral ion absorption from the soil into roots by active transport | Concentration of ions greater inside root cells, so need to go against concentration gradient in order to absorb minerals > active transport - mitochondria and protein pumps in root hairs - need oxygen to produce ATP (ACR) to undergo active transport |
| 9.2.4 State that terrestrial plants support themselves by means of thickened cellulose, cell turgor and lignified xylem. | Thickened cellulose: thick cell walls; strengthens plant Cell turgor: high pressure inside cell from water absorption; makes cell rigid Lignified xylem: xylem tissue lignified and thickened; extra support |
| 9.2.5 Define transpiration | loss of water vapour from the leaves and stems of plants due to evaporation |
| 9.2.6 Explain how water is carried by the transpiration stream, including the structure of xylem vessels, transpiration pull, cohesion, adhesion and evaporation | Transpiration stream: unbroken movement of water from roots to leaves |
| 9.2.6 (continued) structure of xylem vessel | -structure of xylem vessels: no plasma membranes, so water flows freely; ring-shaped cellulose on cell wall filled w/ lignin, resists inward pressure; pores on outside conduct water in and out; lumen filled w/ sap (breakdown of nuclei and cytoplasm) |
| 9.2.6 (continued) transpiration pull | low pressure created inside xylem vessels aft water pulled out; generates pulling force tht extends down to roots tht pulls water upward against gravity |
| 9.2.6 (continued) cohesion and adhesion | Cohesion: attraction between water molecules due to H-bonds; flow of water continuous Adhesion: water attracted to wall of xylem; prevents breakage of water flow |
| 9.2.6 (continued) evaporation | heat promotes evaporation: evaporated water replaced with water from xylem vessels in leaf; water pulled out thru pores in spongy mesophyll cells by capillary action |
| 9.2.7 State that guard cells can regulate transpiration by opening and closing stomata | Controls aperture of stoma: - when filled w/ water, pressure opens stoma - when water lost, pressure lost, and surrounding epidermis cells pushes them together > closes stoma |
| 9.2.8 State that the plant hormone abscisic acid causes the closing of stomata | If short on H2O, plant hormone synthesized to prevent dehydration and death; overrides all other stimuli and closes stoma (even if low CO2 concentrations inside leaf and bright light) |
| 9.2.9 Explain how the abiotic factors light, temperature, wind and humidity affect the rate of transpiration in a typical terrestrial plant. | light: stoma open in light; increases transpiration temp: more heat = faster transpiration humidity: lower humidity = faster transpiration wind: stronger wind decreases humidity = faster transpiration |
| 9.2.10 Outline four adaptations of xerophytes that help to reduce transpiration | xerophytes: plants adapted to grow in dry habitats 1)vertical stem: reduce sunlight absorbed during midday 2) thick waxy cuticle 3) spines instead of leaves: reduce S.A. 4) CAM physiology: open stoma during night instead of day |
| 9.2.11 Outline the role of phloem in active translocation of sugars (sucrose) and amino acids from source (photosynthetic tissue and storage organs) to sink (fruits, seeds, roots) | Phloem cells use ATP to transport sugars and aa from sources to sinks - sources: stems, leaves (where photosynthesis occurs) - sinks: roots, fruits - process called: active translocation |
| 9.3.1 Draw and label a diagram showing the structure of a dicot animal-pollinated flower | see notes |
| 9.3.2 Distinguish between pollination, fertilization and seed dispersal | Pollination: transfer of pollen from anther to stigma Fertilization: creation of zygote by fusing male gamete w/ female gamete inside ovule Seed dispersal: depends on type of fruit > attracts diff animals / environmental factors e.g. wind |
| 9.3.3 Draw and label a diagram showing the external and internal structure of a named dicot seed | see notes |
| 9.3.4 Explain the conditions needed for the germination of a typical seed | - H2O to rehydrate dry tissues of seeds - O2 for ACR - temp for enzyme activity |
| 9.3.5 Outline the metabolic processes during germination of a starchy seed. | 1) absorb water to rehydrate cells > makes cell metabolically active 2) gibberellin (growth hormone) produced in cotyledon of seed > stimulates production of amylase, which catalyzes digestion of starch into maltose for food stores |
| 9.3.5 (continued) | 3) maltose transported to growth regions (embryo shoot and root) 4) maltose converted to glucose > used in ACR or synthesize cellulose for growth 5)once leaves reach sunlight, photosynthesis begins (food stores not needed) |
| 9.3.6 Explain how flowering is controlled in long-day and short-day plants, including the role of phytochrome |
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yu.mmi
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