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Biology II Final 2
Lectures 31-44
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Environment limits survival and reproduction through... | competition due to overpopulation, predation, and physical environment |
| Genetic effects | phenotypic differences are often heritable because differences in individuals are in part due to differences in their alleles |
| Uniformitarian Principle | major forces of change have been the same throughout Earth's history |
| Uniformitarian Principle implies gradualism | that change is slow and at a constant rate such as erosiion, sedimentation, tectonic movement |
| Homologous phenotypes | share a common ancestor, but the homologous structures do not have to have the same function |
| Criteria for homologous phenotypes | extensive phenotypic similarity, common developmental sources, seriation (fossil species and developmental sequences between related living species) |
| Analogous phenotypes | share common functions in common environments, but do not share common ancestor-common functions does not imply common |
| Convergent phenotypes | evolve independently in unrelated taxa, which provides evidence for natural selection |
| Rules for calculating relative frequencies: | -Frequency(Ai)=#Ai/(#A1...n) for n alleles -Sum of all allelic frequencies must equal 1.00 |
| Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium | the genotype frequencies and gene frequencies of a large, randomly mating population remain constant provided immigration, mutation, and selection do not take place |
| Gene pool metaphor | random mating of individuals (genotypes) is equivalent to random fusion of gametes |
| Intersection Rule | Prob(A AND B)=P(A) x P(B) |
| Union Rule | Prob(A OR B)=P(A) + P(B) |
| Example: Freq(A1)=p, Freq(A2)=q | -Freq(A1A1)= p x p = p^2 (homozygous) -Freq(A2A2)= q x q = q^2 (homozygous) -Freq(A1A2)=(p x q)+(q x p)= 2pq (hetero) |
| Genotypic frequencies vs. allele frequencies | -allele frequencies=p,q,r,... -genotypic frequencies=A1, A2, A3... |
| Forces change allele frequencies (4) | 1) selection 2)random genetic drift 3)migration between unlike populations 4)mutation |
| Assortative mating (nonrandom) | changes genotypic frequencies but not allele frequencies |
| Absolute fitness in the general selection model | number of survivors/total |
| Relative fitness in the general selection model | absolute fitness/best of absolute fitness (ratio closest to 1) |
| Measured rate of change of allele frequencies | delta(p or q)= p or q(after selection)- p or q(before selection)--->delta p is opposite of delta q |
| Mean population Fitness (W-bar) | expected genotypic frequencies x genetic fitnesses |
| Mean allelic fitnesses | W(A1)- W(A2)= rate, direction |
| Reverse heterosis | heterozygote less fit than homozygotes |
| Therapeutic use of antibiotics | least likely to cause evolution of ABR-->high dosages, 2 or more antibiotics, brief use but finish the course treatment |
| Prophylactic use of antibiotics | continual selection for ABR-->low dosages, 1 antibiotic, continuous use |
| Erratic use of antibiotics | most effective at generating ABR-->use of many antiobiotics (one at a time though), rapid switches between all antibiotics, variable or inadequate dosages |
| Mechanisms of antibiotic resistance | 1) fortress=reduced inflow of antibiotic to keep out antibiotics 2) flush toliet=increased excretion of antibiotic so what comes in gets pumped back out 3) muffler=inactivation of antibiotic 4) armor=alteration of target molecule (ex. reverse RNA) |
| Genetic variation | mutation is the ultimate source to genetic variation, because genetic variation is reduced in the random genetic drift and directional selection processes |
| Inbreeding Depression (ID) | genetic basis of ID is increased expression of rare recessive alleles in homozygous form--->rare recessives are often harmful though causing sterility, high juvenile death rates, low resistance to diseases, etc. |
| Inbreeding Depression can be fixed by | migration-introducing new alleles to the population |
| Intrinsic barriers | biological barriers that prevent mating between two sympatric yet divergent populations |
| Prezygotic barriers (intrinsic barrier) | prevent gamete fusion through habitat differences, timing differences, mating behaviors, and gamete incompatibility |
| Postzygotic barriers (intrinsic barrier) | involve genetic mismatches between parent gametes that result in progeny including inviability and infertility |
| Nesting hierarchy | Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Group, Species |
| Clock formula | -t=time from the common ancestor to either descendent species -R=rate of evolution in # of changes/# positions/year -D(a,d)=divergence between the common ancestor and either descendent species -D=divergence between the two descendent species |
| Peripatric model of speciation | new species form by long-range dispersal of "colonists" that may establish small daughter populations |
| Vicariance model of speciation | geographic barriers arise to split populations or populations move around them, which then evolve so differently from one another to result in an intrinsic barrier between them |
| RNA World Hypothesis | RNA contains introns that self-splice them out, RNA is self replicating, proteinless ribosomes can elongate polypeptide chains, introns in RNA can add amino acids to tRNA and remove them |
| RNA is inferior to DNA and proteins | DNA is more stable than RNA, 20 amino acids allow more informational combinations than four RNA bases do, so DNA and proteins eventually replaced RNA in major roles |
| RNA roles in present day | ribosome skeleton, tRNA, RNA primer for DNA chain replication, and some coenzymes |
| Enantiomers within living systems | are more bias towards the levo enantiomers and has been maintained through enzymatic specificity |
| 5-Kingdom System between plants+fungi and animals | -Plants=stationary; photoautotrophic -animals=mobile; chemoheterotrophic -fungi=stationary; chemoheterotrophic -protista=unicellular eukaryote; chemoheterotrophic and/or photoautotrophic -monera=unicellular prokaryote; include all trophic forms |
| 3 Major Domains of Life | Archaebacteria-evolved when free energy was rare on earth (old), diverged into eubacteria and eucaryota |
| Prokaryotic cells | usually small, anaerobic+aerobic metabolism, no nucleus, reproduce asexually through fission, has mesosomes but no other membrane-bound organelles, ingestion through absorptive (soak up dissolved compounds from medium), and no mobile cell cytoskeleton |
| Eukaryotic cells | large, mostly aerobic, has a nucleus, reproduces through mitosis and meiosis, has membrane-bound organelles, ingests through cytotic/absorptive (pick up large particles and digest them), and has mobile cell cytoskeleton |
| Oxygen is essential for present-day eukaryotes | catabolism (respiration), and anabolism (adding oxygen to anaerobically synthesized carbohydrate) |
| Production of molecular O2 depends on | aerobic photosynthesis and nitrogen fixation |
| Biological evidence of eukaryotes | achritarchs (fossil spore cases formed by eukaryotes) and stearanes (molecular fossils of eukaryote metabolism) |
| Membrane organelles increase internal surface/volume ratios of cells | by increasing rates of internal traffic flow through lysosomes, compartmentalize cells into little spaces with each doing a specialized function, and organize assembly lines for the orderly synthesis of movement of materials in a linear array |
| Endogenous Origin Hypothesis | two-membrane organelles evolved (mitochondria and platids) from pre-existing structures of an ancestral eukaryotic cell |
| Endosymbiont Hypothesis | mitochondria and plastids evolved as bacterial symbionts that got taken up by phagocytosis and enclosed in lysosome but no digested so now lives inside eukaryotic cells |
| Evidence supporting Endosymbiont Hypothesis | mitochondria and plastids resemble prokaryotes in size, chromosomal structure, sensitivity to antibiotics, and synthesize own rRNA and tRNA, and self-replicate population inside cells |
| Sexual reproduction produces genetic variation by | fusion of gametes from different parents, independent assortment of chromosomes, and crossing-over between chromosomes |
| Crossing over products heritable | because they are linked DNA sequences, while other genotypic combinations are broken up in meiosis and not transmitted through generations |
| Terrestrial stresses | related to absence of water through support, transport, and dehydration |
| Protosomes larval characteristics (coelomate animal) | 8-cell stage of cleavage that is spiral and determinate, mouth develops from blastopore, and solid mass of mesoderm splits to form coelom |
| Deuterostomes larval characteristics (coelomate animal) | 8-cell stage of cleavage that is radial and indeterminate, anus develops from blastopore, and folds of archenteron forms coelom |
| Earliest vertebrates | agnathid (jawless) fish |
| Jaws first seen in | Placoderm (skin plate) fish |
| Williston's Law of evolution of segmented phenotypes | unused segments tend to become lost, and used segments tend to be kept, but some of remaining segments evolve new functions because other maintain ancestral function |
| Amphibians evolved and became dominant | due to locomotion provided by the lobe fin with was modified to support limbs, and resistance to dehydration provided by leathery skin and lungs |
| First wholly terrestrial vertebrates | amniotes who were adapted to reproduce internally and egg contained amnion, chorion, allantois, and yolk sac |
| Amphibians tied to aquatic habitats | for food (fish) and reproduction for external fertilization and larval development |
| Amnion in amniote egg | anti-dehydration device that provides hydraulic support |
| Chorion in amniote egg | formed from ectoderm and mesoderm, expands and contacts air space to aid in uptake of gas |
| Allantois in amniote egg | formed from mesoderm and endoderm, its the dump site where all waste goes, but also evolved to aid in gas exchange |
| Yolk sac in amniote egg | used to build cell membrance, and food supply for embryo |
| Eukaryotic genome consists of | unique single copy DNA, and repeat DNA (multiple copies of DNA section)-more DNA in a cell, more of it is repeat DNA |
| Beta-family | beta, epsilon, gamma, delta, pseudo-beta 1&2 |
| Alpha-family | alpha 1&2, pseudo-alpha1, fetal 1&2 |
| Kinds of Homology | Orthology between species, and paralogy between phenotypes within species |
| Gene duplication events | chances of unequal cross-over increase as number of adjacent gene repeats increase |
| Retro-transposition | can be transcribed into DNA and reverse transcribed into rRNA |
| Polyploidization | similar gene clusters are shared between chromosomes |
| Functional significance of multigenes in evolution | transcript amplification (higher transcript production rates), protected function through redundancy (loss of one gene does not cause loss of function), heterogenous function (different copies can evolve different functions) |
| Oxygen uptake curves | oxygen binding at one monomer in a tetramer increases the probability of oxygen binding at adjacent monomers, which increases as oxygen is added, and increases efficiency of oxygen transport between lungs and cells |
| Angiosperm advances in phenotype | due to pollinators being attracted to their flowers or odors, animals attracted to their fruits, and discouraging herbivores through poisonous berries, seeds, etc. |
| Selective coevolution | evolution by each species in association is affected by its interactions with other species |
| Pollinators can promote speciation | by restricting gene flow between sympatric plant populations. Ex)2 parent species and the hybrid daughter species all have different pollinators causing the hybrid daughter species to stabilize as separate species |
| Congruent phylogenies | expected if hosts restrict opportunities for gene flow between populations of their symbionts |
| Kin Selection | central concept is inclusive fitness (WI) where alleles are heritable units of evolution and relatives share copies of alleles inherited from common ancestors |
| Individual's inclusive fitness | based off reproduction by self and reproduction through aided relatives |
| Relatedness | measures the degree to which two individuals share copies of the same alleles due to descent from common (shared) ancestors |
| Hamilton's Rule | states that an individual (Ego) should donate aid if: benefit>cost (b*r > c*1--->b/c > 1/r) |
| Two elements of Hamilton's Rule | b/c measures ecological effects and 1/r measures genetic effects -b=reproductive benefit to a relative of aid -c=reproductive cost to ego of giving aid -r-relatedness of aided relative to ego -1=relatedness of ego to ego |
| Reciprocal altruism | to have a friend, be one. Ex)vampire bat |
| Characteristics of mammals and bats lifestyle | philopatric matrilineal societies (stay within family group), food donation to young, mutual grooming (test who is reliable partner), and operant conditioning (ability to learn identity marks) |
| Calculating relatedness | r(ab)=sum of p(1/2)^n r(ab)=relatedness of a to b p=all possible paths of allelic descent from shared ancestors n=# of meiotic steps in each path of descent |
Created by:
ajohannes
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