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Biology II Final
Lectures 1-10
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Differ between haploid and diploid | Haploid is one copy of each chromosome Diploid is two copies each chromosome |
| What is the method eukaryotes use to reproduce? | nuclear fusion |
| How are two chromatids attached? | protein called cohesin, which must dissolve to allow separation |
| What is a kinetochore? | spindle-microtubule attachment point, which are attached to the centromeres. During metaphase, there is one on each chromosome, which face towards opposite poles of the cell |
| What happens at meiosis with the number of chromosomes? | they become haploid |
| What happens during metaphase? | All chromatids attached to kinectochores and lined up horizontally across the cell |
| What happens during anaphase? | Chromatids pull apart from each other and go to opposite poles of the cell; the chromatids become mature chromosomes |
| What prevents sister chromatids from coming apart until Anaphase II? | shugoshin |
| During S stage of the cell cycle, what happens to the chromosomes? | the chromosomes duplicate forming two chromatids |
| Meiosis I consists of... | separating homologs |
| What is chiasmata? | The point of crossing over between two chromosomes |
| End of telophase I results in... | a division of the cell into two cells which both have a set from each pair of homologous chromosome |
| Meiosis II consists of... | separating sister chromosomes (chromatids) |
| Telophase II results in.. | Four haploid daughter cells |
| Chromatids vs. Chromosomes | Chromosomes consist of chromatids. Each centromere indicates a chromosome. Number of strands indicates how many chromatids. |
| Organisms who produce asexually can have offspring with... | exact copies of themselves |
| somatic cells | are all other cells than those involved in gamete formation-diploid cells |
| pleiotropy | genes that have multiple phenotypic effects such as sickle-cell disease |
| epistasis | gene at one locus alters the phenotypic expression of gene at a different locus |
| Law of Dominance | is that in an organism that carries two different alleles of gene, dominant allele is expressed, and the recessive allele remains unharmed just not expressed |
| Law of Segregation | two alleles carried by each individual segregate during gamete formation |
| What organisms have same allele present in all gametes? | pure-breds |
| Testcross are used to... | find out the genotype of individual of unknown parentage that is expressing "dominant" phenotype |
| Incomplete dominance | neither allele is completely dominant over the other, so the phenotypic outcome is a compromise. Ex. red and white make pink during incomplete dominance |
| Co-dominance | both phenotypes revealed, and can distinguish each allele's contribution to phenotype. Ex. calicos which reveal both orange and black fur |
| Organism inherits from each parent... | an allele that is each carried on one of the two homologs |
| Sex Linkage was first discovered... | by Thomas Morgan who conducted an experiment on Drosophila |
| Meiotic Non-disjunction | is the failure of chromosome pairs to separate properly during meiosis. Ex. Down's syndrome in humans |
| Barr body | inactive X in each cell of female condenses into compact object |
| Law of Independent Assortment (9:3:3:1 rule) | allele pairs separate independently during the formation of gametes |
| For independent assortment, all combinations of gametes will be found... | in equal frequencies, so there will be an equal number of recombinant gametes and parental-type gametes |
| Linked genes | located on same chromosome which tend to be inherited together in genetic crosses |
| Linked genes cause parental-type gametes and recombinant gametes to be... | unequal, while the number of gametes are equal in the two parental-type classes and the number of gametes are equal in the two recombinant classes |
| The greater the distance the genes are apart... | the more likelihood they will have a cross over |
| Map distance | is approximately equal to the % of recombinant gametes |
| Cytogenetic maps | locate genes on a chromosome with respect to chromosomal features that can be seen with aided eye |
| Maximum proportion of recombinant gametes possible in any two factor cross is... | 50% |
| Double crossovers | two crossover events between two genes on different chromosomes-two crossover cancel each other out |
| On chromosomes, genes normally have... | a linear order and definite locations |
| Many genes can indicate one feature... | a given character is influenced by the cooperative activity of several distinct genes located at different sites in chromosomes. Ex. eye color is not all based off one gene |
| Relationship between genes to polypeptides... | 1:1 ratio |
| Relationship between genes to characters (phenotypes) | many:many ratio |
| Which type of rabbit has a coat color that is dependent on the environmental conditions? | himalayan-above 34 degrees Celsius the fur is white, and below 34 degrees Celsius the fur is black |
| Inborn Errors of Metabolism | is metabolic defects where genes specify enzymes that catalyze specific steps of metabolism. Ex. phenylketonuria (PKU) |
| Phenylketonuria | is due to defective phenylalanine hydroxylase (pah-) which causes an accumulation of phenylalanine due to failure to convert it to tyrosine |
| One gene-one polypeptide chain hypothesis | two genes can code for one protein which comes from more than one polypeptide |
| AUG nucleic acid bases code for | initiate chain reaction |
| UAA, UAG, UGA nucleic acid bases code for | chain termination |
| Non template strand | is the coding strand, which is what the mRNA strand looks like except U instead of T |
| Template strand | complementary to the non template strand, and RNA nucleotides bind to this strand |
| Normal adult hemoglobin consists of... | two alpha polypeptide chains and two beta polypeptide chains, where the alpha chains are coded for by separate genes located on different human chromosomes compared to the beta chains |
| Silent substitution or synonymous mutation | have little to no effect-the protein coded is the same, just the bases coding for that protein are different. Ex. GAG and GAA both code for Glu |
| Missense substituion-a point mutation | a single nucleotide changes causing the coding of the amino acid to change. Ex. GAG codes for Glu and GTG codes for Val |
| Nonsense substitution or chain-termination | a nucleotide changes causing the coding for the amino acid to be one of the stop codons. Ex. TGG changed to TGA creates UGA which is a stop codon |
| frameshift mutations-a point mutation | deletion or additions of a single base pair that alters the rest of the polypeptide chain. Ex. GAGGAG delete the first A to create GGG AG... |
| Thalassemia is a disease in which patients who have no recognizable beta or alpha chains which is caused by | a frameshift mutation or chain termonation |
| Single-gene diseases | Huntington's disease, Tay-Sachs disease, Cystic fibrosis, Duchenne muscular dystrophy |
| Feedback inhibition in shutting off enzyme synthesis | is reducing the activity of the enzyme |
| Translational repression in shutting off enzyme synthesis | preventing formation of enzyme either by inhibiting translation of mRNAs transcribed from the genes or else by degrading these mRNAs-turns off translation operon |
| Transcriptional repression in shutting off enzyme synthesis | preventing formation of the enzyme by inhibiting transcription of one or more of the genes coding for the enzymes-blocks promoter from starting transcription operon |
| Transcription can start when | RNA polymerase binds to one of the strands of DNA at the promoter base |
| Operon | protein-coding gene-cluster plus promoter and o-site (between promoter and structural genes) together |
| Structural gene mutations | result in inability to form normal versions of particular enzyme of synthetic pathway |
| Regulatory elements mutations | affect the conditions under which transcription of entire operon is regulated |
| Repressible operon | usually on, but can be repressed (turned off) by the repressor becoming activated and blocking the promotor site which prevents RNA polymerase from binding to it Ex. trp operon |
| Mutations at the r gene (in repressible operons) | creates a non-funcational repressor, so operon cannot be turned off |
| Mutations at the o gene | make the operon non-repressible even if the active repressor is present |
| De-repression or inducible operon | usually off, but can be turned on by inactivating the repressor which prevents it from binding to the promoter and allows the RNA polymerase to bind to the promoter Ex. lac operon |
| i gene (in inducible operons) | codes for repressor which creates an active repressor |
| Restriction endonucleases or restriction enzymes | recognize and cleave only certain specific base sequences of 4-8 bases called restriction sites, and these sequences are rotationally symmetric (identical for both strands when read from 5' to 3') |
| Restriction enzymes are produced by bacteria... | to cleave DNA of invading viruses, in which they recognize restriction sites in the invaders and cut DNA wherever unprotected base sequence is located |
| Southern blotting | combines gel electrophoresis and nucleic acid hybridization allows scientists to detect only bands that include part of the "gene of interest" |
| DNA composed of... | 25% made up of protein coding genes and introns and regulatory sequences, 60% made up of repetitive noncoding DNA |
| Repetitive noncoding DNA has a small part of... | simple-sequence DNA made up of short tandem repeats (STRS)of 2 to 5 base pairs which are common in the human genome |
| Multiple cloning site (MCS)on a plasmid | has many unique restriction sites which are present nowhere else on the plasmid |
| Plasmid, small circular DNA molecule, contains | own origin of replication, multiple cloning site, and a gene for resistance to an antibiotic (bacteria transformed by this vector will be resistant to that antibiotic) |
| Recombinant DNA technology | involves inserting DNA from foreign sources into engineered plasmids by using the same restriction enzyme for both the DNA and the plasmid so they join together by complementary ends |
| Blue-white test | bacterial colonies derived from bacteria transformed by "resealed" plasmids are blue and those transformed by recombinant plasmids with disrupted genes are white |
| Nucleic acid hybridization | method used to detect "gene of interest" by finding gene's DNA ability to base-pair with complementary sequence on another nucleic acid molecule which is called nucleic acid probe |
| Purifying a gene using Recombinant DNA Technology | create a genomic library followed by use of radioactive probe to find "gene of interest", then determine the DNA base sequence of the cloned gene and transfer genes from one species to another to alter their characteristics |
| Gene therapy | introducing a normal gene into a mutant organism, and potentially cure it-difficult to do in a way that is effective and safe |
| Purifying a protein using Recombinant DNA Techonology | starting with a cDNA library followed by radioactive probe to find "cDNA of interest", and determine the amino acid sequence of the protein that gene encodes, and purify its protein product and use it for medicine and agriculture |
Created by:
ajohannes
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