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APBIO Human Systems
Chapters 40-50
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Epidermis | The outermost layer of skin mainly composed of dead epithelial cells that continually flake, fall off, and get replaced by new cells from lower layers |
| Dermis | The inner skin layer that contains hair follicles, oil, sweat glands, muscles, nerves, and blood vessels |
| Hypodermis | The layer of adipose tissue that includes fat-storing cells and blood vessels |
| Skin | The outer part of the integumentary system, which involves the outer covering of the body |
| Thermoregulation | The process by which animals maintain an internal temperature within a tolerable range that allows them to regulate enzymatic reactions affected by temperature changes |
| Endothermic | Gaining heat generated by metabolism |
| Ectothermic | Gaining heat from external sources |
| What are the methods of thermoregulation? | Insulation, circulatory adaptations, countercurrent exchange, evaporation, behavioral response, thermogenesis, and nonshivering thermogenesis |
| Insulation | An adaptation of mammals and birds, which blocks the flow of heat between an animal and its environment using mechanisms such as hair, feathers, adipose fat layers or blubber |
| Circulatory Adaptations | The process, also known as vasodilation or vasoconstriction, through which animals alter the amount of blood, hence heat, flowing between their body core and skin by relaxing or tensing muscles of the vessel walls |
| Countercurrent Exchange | The process through which heat loss in the extremities is reduced by vessels from the core warming other returning vessels as the blood travels, so the flow of adjacent fluids in opposing directions maximizes the transfer rate of heat or solutes |
| Evaporation | The process through which water and heat evaporates off of the body across the skin membrane, through breathing or or panting |
| Behavioral Response | An adaptation common in ectotherms, which includes moving to sunnier or shadier spots to change the exposure of the organism's body to the environment |
| Thermogenesis | The process of heat production, which can be increased by muscle activity, such as moving or shivering |
| Nonshivering Thermogenesis | An adaptation of mammals with brown fat or small, flying endotherms, that allows for a process of heat production, which can be increased by hormones causing mitochondria to increase their activity and produce heat instead of ATP |
| What are the mechanisms of heat transfer? | Radiation, evaporation, convection, and conduction |
| Radiation or Evaporation | The emission of electromagnetic waves by objects warmer than absolute zero |
| Convection or Conduction | The transfer of heat by movement of air or liquid past a surface |
| Hydrostatic Skeleton | A closed , shape-shifting compartment, which holds pressurized fluid, cannot support terrestrial life, cushioned internal organs, and is present in most cnidarians, annelids, nematodes, and platyhelminthes |
| Exoskeleton | A hard encasement made of chitin deposited on the animal's surface, which must be shed and replaced in concordance with the organism's growth, and is hardened or thinned where appropriate. |
| Endoskeleton | A hard-supporting system of elements within the soft tissues of the animal. |
| Sliding-Filament Model | A theory about muscle contraction, which states that thin filaments slide across thin filaments, shortening the sarcomere, and consequently, the entire myofibril |
| Myofibril | A longitudinally organized group of sarcomeres |
| Sarcomere | A combination of thick and thin filaments |
| What are the units of a muscle? | Thin and thick filaments make up a sarcomere, sarcomeres make up a myofibril, myofibrils make up a muscle fiber or cell, muscle fibers or cells make up a muscle |
| Thick Filament | A combination of myosin arrays with a head region extending to the side. |
| Thin Filament | A coil of 2 strands of actin, tropomyosin, and the troponin complex. |
| Tropomyosin | A regulatory protein that covers the myosin binding site |
| Sarcoplasmic Reticulum | The specialized endoplasmic reticulum within the muscle fibers, which releases calcium |
| Troponin Complex | A set of regulatory proteins, which causes the proteins along the actin strands to shift and expose the myosin-binding sites, when enough calcium accumulates |
| What is the function of the head region of the thick filament? | The head hydrolyzes ATP to ADP and P, which allows the P to move into its high energy configuration and bind to the thin filament that slides towards the center of the sarcomere. |
| Cardiac Muscle | |
| Skeletal Muscle | The muscle attached to the bones and that is responsible for movement |
| Smooth Muscle | The muscle that is found in the walls of hollow organs, does not have striations due to the lack of regular actin and myosin arrays, only contracts when stimulated by neurons of the automatic nervous system unless it generates and action potentional on it |
| Thermogenesis | The process of heat production, which can be increased by muscle activity, such as moving or shivering |
| Nonshivering Thermogenesis | An adaptation of mammals with brown fat or small, flying endotherms, that allows for a process of heat production, which can be increased by hormones causing mitochondria to increase their activity and produce heat instead of ATP |
| What are the mechanisms of heat transfer? | Radiation, evaporation, convection, and conduction |
| Radiation or Evaporation | The emission of electromagnetic waves by objects warmer than absolute zero |
| Convection or Conduction | The transfer of heat by movement of air or liquid past a surface |
| Hydrostatic Skeleton | A closed , shape-shifting compartment, which holds pressurized fluid, cannot support terrestrial life, cushioned internal organs, and is present in most cnidarians, annelids, nematodes, and platyhelminthes |
| Exoskeleton | A hard encasement made of chitin deposited on the animal's surface, which must be shed and replaced in concordance with the organism's growth, and is hardened or thinned where appropriate. |
| Endoskeleton | A hard-supporting system of elements within the soft tissues of the animal. |
| Sliding-Filament Model | A theory about muscle contraction, which states that thin filaments slide across thin filaments, shortening the sarcomere, and consequently, the entire myofibril |
| Myofibril | A longitudinally organized group of sarcomeres |
| Sarcomere | A combination of thick and thin filaments |
| What are the units of a muscle? | Thin and thick filaments make up a sarcomere, sarcomeres make up a myofibril, myofibrils make up a muscle fiber or cell, muscle fibers or cells make up a muscle |
| Thick Filament | A combination of myosin arrays with a head region extending to the side. |
| Thin Filament | A coil of 2 strands of actin, tropomyosin, and the troponin complex. |
| Tropomyosin | A regulatory protein that covers the myosin binding site |
| Sarcoplasmic Reticulum | The specialized endoplasmic reticulum within the muscle fibers, which releases calcium |
| Troponin Complex | A set of regulatory proteins, which causes the proteins along the actin strands to shift and expose the myosin-binding sites, when enough calcium accumulates |
| What is the function of the head region of the thick filament? | The head hydrolyzes ATP to ADP and P, which allows the P to move into its high energy configuration and bind to the thin filament that slides towards the center of the sarcomere. |
| Cardiac Muscle | |
| Skeletal Muscle | The muscle attached to the bones and that is responsible for movement |
| Smooth Muscle | The muscle that is found in the walls of hollow organs, does not have striations due to the lack of regular actin and myosin arrays, only contracts when stimulated by neurons of the automatic nervous system unless it generates and action potentional on it |
| Thermogenesis | The process of heat production, which can be increased by muscle activity, such as moving or shivering |
| Nonshivering Thermogenesis | An adaptation of mammals with brown fat or small, flying endotherms, that allows for a process of heat production, which can be increased by hormones causing mitochondria to increase their activity and produce heat instead of ATP |
| What are the mechanisms of heat transfer? | Radiation, evaporation, convection, and conduction |
| Radiation or Evaporation | The emission of electromagnetic waves by objects warmer than absolute zero |
| Convection or Conduction | The transfer of heat by movement of air or liquid past a surface |
| Hydrostatic Skeleton | A closed , shape-shifting compartment, which holds pressurized fluid, cannot support terrestrial life, cushioned internal organs, and is present in most cnidarians, annelids, nematodes, and platyhelminthes |
| Exoskeleton | A hard encasement made of chitin deposited on the animal's surface, which must be shed and replaced in concordance with the organism's growth, and is hardened or thinned where appropriate. |
| Endoskeleton | A hard-supporting system of elements within the soft tissues of the animal. |
| Sliding-Filament Model | A theory about muscle contraction, which states that thin filaments slide across thin filaments, shortening the sarcomere, and consequently, the entire myofibril |
| Myofibril | A longitudinally organized group of sarcomeres |
| Sarcomere | A combination of thick and thin filaments |
| What are the units of a muscle? | Thin and thick filaments make up a sarcomere, sarcomeres make up a myofibril, myofibrils make up a muscle fiber or cell, muscle fibers or cells make up a muscle |
| Thick Filament | A combination of myosin arrays with a head region extending to the side. |
| Thin Filament | A coil of 2 strands of actin, tropomyosin, and the troponin complex. |
| Tropomyosin | A regulatory protein that covers the myosin binding site |
| Sarcoplasmic Reticulum | The specialized endoplasmic reticulum within the muscle fibers, which releases calcium |
| Troponin Complex | A set of regulatory proteins, which causes the proteins along the actin strands to shift and expose the myosin-binding sites, when enough calcium accumulates |
| What is the function of the head region of the thick filament? | The head hydrolyzes ATP to ADP and P, which allows the P to move into its high energy configuration and bind to the thin filament that slides towards the center of the sarcomere. |
| Cardiac Muscle | |
| Skeletal Muscle | The muscle attached to the bones and that is responsible for movement |
| Smooth Muscle | The muscle found in hollow organs, have no troponin complex, an underdeveloped sarcoplasmic reticulum, and no striations, also it only contracts if stimulated by the automatic nervous system or if it generates its own action potential. |
| Intercalated Disk | The locations at which the plasma membranes of adjacent cells within the cardiac muscle interlock with gap junctions to allow for direct coupling and the transfer of action potentials throughout the heart |
| Open Circulatory System | A system in which the heart pumps hemolymph through vessels and sinuses, and the hemolymph returns to the heart through pores equipped with valves that close when the heart contracts |
| Closed Circulatory System | A system in which blood is separated from interstitial fluid, and chemical exchanges occur between the blood and the interstitial fluid |
| Vein | A vessel consisting of connective tissue, smooth muscle tissue, an endothelium, a basal lamina, and a valve that pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs |
| Artery | A vessel consisting of connective tissue, smooth muscle tissue, an endothelium, a basal lamina, and a valve that pumps oxygenated blood to the heart |
| Capillary | A vessel that is one cell layer thick for gas exchange between the muscle tissue or the alveoli and the circulatory system |
| What is the path of blood flow between the heart and the body? | |
| Lymphatic System | A network of tiny vessels that regain lymph fluid, which drains into large veins that are next to filtering lymph nodes, and proteins through diffusion that were lost during the diffusion through the capillaries |
| Atherosclerosis | The hardening of arteries because of the accumulation of fatty deposits known as plaque that restrict blood flow |
| Blood | A bodily fluid consisting of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets |
| Plasma | The bodily fluid consisting of water as a solvent, blood electrolytes maintaing the osmotic balance and regulate cell membrane permeability, proteins that maintain osmotic balance and prevent clotting or disease, and substances transported in the blood |
| Red Blood Cell | A biconcave cell that contains hemoglobin and transports oxygen or carbon dioxide |
| White Blood Cell | A shape-shifting cell that functions as a defense mechanism because it envelops and destroys pathogens through phagocytosis using pseudopodia |
| Platelet | An irregularly shaped cell that catches or attaches to surfaces other blood cells might flow through to form clots |
| What is the path of air from between the body and the environment? | Air enters through the mouth or nasal cavity, passes through the trachea, the two cartilaginous bronchi, the two lungs, the cartilaginous bronchioles, and the alveoli at which point the air is diffused into the circulatory system |
| Partial Pressure | The pressure exerted by a particular gas within a mixture of gases |
| Gill | An out-folding of the body surface that usually has a larger surface area than that of the rest of the body and allows for gas exchange when in contact with water |
| Ventilation | The movement of the respiratory medium over the respiratory surface which maintains partial pressure gradients of oxygen and carbon dioxide |
| Tracheal System | A system of air tubes throughout the body from which the gas can diffuse directly into or out of the cell, which is commonly employed by insects who also have an open circulatory system because they do not have blood to transport the gases |
| Lung | A localized respiratory organ that is normally subdivided into numerous pockets and requires a circulatory system to transport gases to and from cells in the body |
| Bird Respiration | A process through which birds breathe that includes gas exchange happening in only direction, so the complete passage of air requires two cycles, inhalation and exhalation |
| How does gas exchange occur in the alveoli? | Oxygen dissolves in the moist, film liming the inner surfaces of the alveoli, across the epithelium and into a web of capillaries |
| Surfactant | A specialized secretion that is required to relieve the surface tensions in the fluid that cover the alveoli, preventing them from collapsing |
| How is carbon dioxide transported in the blood? | It binds to the amino acid ends of hemoglobin in polypeptide chains, is released by respiring cells and is transported in the plasma or is transported in the blood in the form of bicarbonate ions |
| Reception | The process through which sensory cells, usually specialized neurons or epithelial cells sense a stimulus that starts a sensory pathway |
| Transduction | The process through which the stimulus changes the membrane potential in a sensory receptor |
| Amplification | The process through which the stimulus energy is increased during transduction based on results from signal transduction pathways producing second messengers through enzymatic reactions |
| Perception | The sensory nerve constructions in the brain |
| Integration | The process through which sensory receptions are accumulated to create a larger overall effect |
| Mechanoreceptor | A receptor that senses when pressure, stretching, and touching cause physical deformation |
| Chemoreceptor | A receptor that is important in organismal feeding behavior and either responds to specific molecules or generally transmits stimuli such as solute concentration |
| Electromagnetic Receptor | A receptor that senses electromagnetic energy and include photoreceptors, thermoreceptors, pain receptors or nociceptors |
| What does an organism's diet need to contain? | A supply of chemical energy, organic molecules, and essential nutrients, so the organism can produce ATP and raw materials |
| Essential Nutrient | A material an animal needs to survive but cannot ingest, which includes essential fatty acids, vitamins, and amino acids |
| What is digested in the oral cavity, pharynx or esophagus? | Salivary amylase digests polysaccharides and disaccharides in the oral cavity, pharynx, and esophagus |
| What is digested in the stomach? | Pepsin digests polypeptides |
| What is digested in the lumen of the small intestine? | Pancreatic amylase digests disaccharides; pancreatic trypsin and chymotrypsin digest polypeptides; pancreatic nucleases digest nucleotides; bile salts and pancreatic lipases digest fat and glycerol |
| What is digested in the epithelium of the small intestine? | Disaccharidases digest disaccharides; dipeptidases, carboxypeptidases, and aminopeptidases digest amino acids; nucelotidases, nucleosideases, and phosphatases digest nucelosides and nitrogenous bases |
| Villus | A finger-like projection found in the large folds of the lining of the small intestine, which help to create a larger surface area for nutrient absorption |
| Microvillus | A microscopic appendage found on the surface of the villi, whicih help to create a larger surface area for nutrient absorption |
| Lacteal | A vessel found at the base of each villus |
| Hepatic Portal Vein | A blood vessel that leads to the liver, which allows the liver to regulate how nutrients are distributed |
| How are nutrients digested or transported within or from the small intestine? | They are digested actively to speed up the rate of digestion or passively |
| How are lipids digested and transported within and from the small intestine? | Fatty acids combine with monoglycerides to form triglycerides, which are then covered in chylomicrons and transported to the lacteal |
| Large Intestine | The ending of the alimentary canal, consisting of the colon, cecum and rectum |
| Cecum | The arm of the T-shaped large intestine that ferments ingested material, so humans have a small cecum |
| Colon | The arm of the T-shaped large intestine that recovers water that has entered the alimentary canal |
| Rectum | The sphincter that control the movement of molecules through the anus from the large intestine |
| What is the pathway of a hormone? | It travels from the endocrine cell to the extracellular fluid to the bloodstream to the target cell |
| What is the function of a hormone? | It maintains homeostasis, mediates responses to environmental stimuli, regulates growth and development and reproduction |
| What is the pathway of a pheromone? | It travels from the signaling molecule to the external environment |
| What is the function of a pheromone? | It marks trails leading to food, defines territories, warns predators, and attracts potential mates |
| What is the pathway of a local regulator? | It travels from the paracrine or autocrine cell to the extracellular fluid to the target cell |
| What is the function of a local regulator? | It regulates blood pressure and is involved in nervous system function, and reproduction |
| Hypothalamus | The gland in the brain that initiates endocrine signaling in response to environmental conditions |
| Anterior Pituitary Gland | The gland at the base of the hypothalamus in front of the posterior pituitary gland that stimulates growth and metabolic unctions, milk production and secretion, as well as the production of ova and sperm with hormones like GH, PRL, FSH, LH, TSH, and ACTH |
| Pancreas | The organ behind the stomach that produces insulin and regulates the glucose concentration in the blood with hormones like insulin that trigger the uptake of glucose and glucagon that triggers the release of glucose |
| Testes | The gonads that support sperm formation and the development and maintenance of male secondary sex characteristics with hormones like androgen |
| Ovaries | The gonad that stimulates uterine lining growth and promotes the development and maintenance of female secondary characteristics with hormones like estrogens and progestins |
| Posterior Pituitary Gland | The gland at the base of the hypothalamus that stimulates the contraction of the uterus and mammary gland cells, as well as promotes the retention of water by the kidneys with hormones like oxytocin for milk release and ADH for blood osmolarity |
| What is the pathway of hormones from the posterior pituitary gland? | It begins with the stimulus and goes to the sensory neuron, the hypothalamus, the posterior pituitary gland, the neurosecretory cell, the blood vessel, the target cells, and elicits a response |
| What is the pathway of hormones from the anterior pituitary gland? | It begins with the stimulus and goes to the sensory neuron, the hypothalamus, the anterior pituitary gland that releases another hormone to go to a target endocrine tissue that releases another hormone |
| Tropic Hormone | A hormone from the anterior pituitary gland that regulates the function of endocrine cells or glands, including FSH, LH, ACTH |
| Nontropic Hormone | A hormone from the anterior pituitary gland that targets nonendocrine tissues, including PRL, MSH |
| Growth Hormone | A hormone from the anterior pituitary gland the stimulates grwoth through tropic and nontropic effects |
| Water-Soluble Hormone | A hormone that bonds to a signal receptor protein, triggers events in the plasma membrane and a cellular response, including moving proteins to the nucleus from the cytoplasm to alter gene transcription |
| Lipid-Soluble Protein | A protein located in the cytosol that binds to its cytostolic receptor, forms a hormone-receptor complex that goes to the nucleus, interacts with the DNA and stimulates the transcription of certain genes |
| Cell Body of a Neuron | An area in which the organelles are located |
| Dendrite | A highly-branched extension that receives signals from other neurons |
| Axon | An extension that transmits signals to other cells, which are longer than dendrites |
| Axon Hillock | A cone-shaped region that connects the cell body to the axon and generates signals, which will travel down the axon |
| Presynaptic Cell | A cell that transmits a signal |
| Postsynaptic Cell | A cell that receives a signal |
| Neurotransmitter | A chemical messenger molecule that is released from the presynaptic cell at the synaptic terminal and received by the postsynaptic cell |
| Synapse | The junction between neurons at which the synaptic terminal of the presynaptic cell transmits a signal to the postsynaptic cell |
| What determines the complexity of a neuron? | The number of synapses it has with other cells |
| Glia | The supporting cells that nourish neurons, insulate axons, or regulate extracellular fluid |
| Resting Potential | The voltage across the membrane of a nerve cell at rest, between -60 and -68 mV, which is maintained by sodium-potassium pumps, so there is 140mM of potassium in the cell and 5mM outside, and 15mM or sodium in the cell and 150mM outside |
| How is voltage generated within a nerve cell? | A few open ion channels allow for the diffusion of ions down the electrochemical gradient, creating a net movement of charge, for example, an outflow of potassium causes a buildup of negative charge inside of the axon |
| How can resting potential be shifted to action potential? | An external stimulus causes the opening of additional sodium channels, so more sodium flows out, and the depolarization reaches a threshold |
| Hyperpolarization | The condition in which the membrane voltage is more negative than the resting potential that occurs, when potassium flows out of the cell |
| Depolarization | The condition in which the membrane voltage is more positive than the resting potential that occurs, when sodium flows out of the cell |
| How is an action potential created? | The resting state is disturbed, depolarization, rising phase, falling phase, and undershoot |
| Rising Phase | When depolarization opens most of the sodium channels, the influx of sodium brings the membrane potential close to ENA |
| Falling Phase | When the sodium channels become inactive and block the flow of sodium, the potassium channels open and allow the outflow of potassium, which brings the membrane potential close to EK |
| Undershoot | The potassium channels remain open, so the membrane is more permeable to potassium than it was at the resting state, so the outflow of potassium is greater than at the resting state, so the inside of the axon hyperpolarized |
| Region of Repolarization | The area directly behind an action potential that prevents the backwards spread of action potential by increasing the outflow of potassium |
| Sympathetic Division | The area responsible for the fight-or-flight response and constricts pupils, stimulates salivation, constricts bronchi, slows heart, stimulates stomach, gallbladder, pancreas, penile erections, intestines, and the bladder |
| Parasympathetic Division | The area responsible for the rest-and-digest response and works against the sympathetic division |
| Neurotransmission | The action potential depolarizes the terminal, opens voltage-gated calcium channels, causes synaptic vesicles to fuse with the presynaptic membrane, releases neurotransmitters that bind to the receptors of ligand-gated ion channels, and it is released |
| Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential | When depolarization brings the membrane closer to the action potential threshold |
| Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential | When hyperpolarization is caused by the channels being selectively permeable |
| Temporal Summation | When a second EPSP occurs before the postsynaptic membrane has returned to resting potential |
| Spatial Summation | When the EPSPs from several synapses are combined |
| How do EPSPs and IPSPs relate to action potential? | If enough of them are combined, the effect can be great enough to depolarize the membrane at the axon hillock to threshold and create an action potential |
| Freshwater Fish Osmoregulation | It uses a large amount of urine to counteract the water that flows into the body and remove ammonia |
| Saltwater Fish Osmoregulation | It uses a small amount of urine to balance the influx of salt from its marine environment and remove ammonia |
| Land Vertebrates Osmoregulation | It uses kidneys to make a moderate amount of urine to regulate the salt concentration in the body and get rid of urea |
| Insects Vertebrates Osmoregulation | It uses malphigian tubes that poke out from hemolymph to the digestive tract and remove uric acid from the blood without filtration, but with a transport epithelium |
| Birds Osmoregulation | It uses a shallow Loop of Henle, transport epithelium, and layers of cell to regulate solute movement of uric acid |
| Platyhelminthes Osmoregulation | It uses protonephridia, which are a network of tubules with flame bulbs excrete urine, while the rest of the waste diffuses out of the body or is excreted from the mouth |
| Annelids Osmoregulation | It uses metanephridia, a ciliated funnel that sweeps fluids into a collecting tubule that goes to the bladder and is released as urine |
| Glomerulus | A cluster of capillaries surrounded by the Bowman's Capsule, in which blood pressure forces ions from the bloodstream to form filtrate |
| Proximal Tube | A tube used to reabsorb valuable nutrients into the blood and body and connects the loop of Henle to the glomerulus |
| Loop of Henle | The aspect of the kidney that turns filtrate into urine and maintains the body's osmotic balance based on that of the kidney and interstitial fluid |
| Distal Tube | The tube used to regulate the pH of the filtrate and the bloodstream by refining the NaCl and K concentrations |
| Collecting Duct | The area at which the filtrate is carried out of the kidney and hormones are regulated to allow the membrane to be permeable to either water or salts |
| The Descending Limb of the Loop of Henle | It has aquaporins that release water and increase the osmolarity of the filtrate |
| The Ascending Limb of the Loop of Henle | It is impermeable to water and allows the higher concentrated NaCl to diffuse out and dilute the filtrate |
| Human Gestation | The carrying of one or more embryos in the womb for 38 weeks, which are broken into three trimesters, development, growth, and more growth, followed by birth |
| Trimester One | The endometrium grows over the embryo, the two interact to form a placenta, organogenesis occurs in the embryo, and it becomes a fetus |
| Trimester Two | The fetus grows to 30cm and can kick, and it is apparent the mother is pregnant |
| Trimester Three | The fetus grows to 50cm and weighs between 3 and 4 kkg |
| Birth | The mother's cervix opens wide and thins, while the uterus contracts forcefully |
| Ovary | An organ packed with follicles, eggs surrounded by cells |
| Oviduct | A tube that runs from the ovaries to the uterus, which has cilia on the end, so it can find the egg from the ovaries |
| Uterus | A thick, muscular cavity that supports the growth of a fetus |
| Endometrium | A nutrient thick layer that lines the uterus |
| Cervix | The neck of the uterus leading to the vagina |
| Vagina | An elastic muscular opening to the female reproductive organs |
| Vulva | The exterior to the vagina composed of the labia majora, labia minora, hymen, and clitoris |
| Mammary Gland | A gland that secretes milk for the child |
| Testis | A group of coiled tubules surrounded by connective tissue where sperm are made |
| Scrotum | A fold of skin to house the testes at two degrees under body temperature to ensure the livelihood of the sperm |
| Epididymus | A long tube around the testes that the sperm travel to mature and become motile before ejaculation |
| Vas Deferens | A muscular tube which brings sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct |
| Ejaculatory Duct | A combination of the vas deferens and the seminal vesicle |
| Seminal Vesicle | A vesicle that secretes mucus with fructose sugars to give sperm energy |
| Prostate Gland | A gland that secretes milky fluid with anticoagulant enzymes for sperm longevity |
| Bulbourethral Gland | A gland that secretes a mucus that neutralizes urine in the urethra and lubricates it |
| Penis | The urethra surrounded by three cylinders of erectile tissue |
| Budding | A type of asexual reproduction in which a new individual grows off of the parent |
| Fragmentation | A type of asexual reproduction in which an organism will break into may pieces, and each piece forms its own organism |
| Regeneration | A type of asexual reproduction in which an injured organism breaks off a part of its body and this part regenerates |
| SeMenstrual Cycle | The process through which females are prepared for sexual intercourse with the intention of pregnancy, consisting of the follicular phase, luteal phase, proliferative phase, secretory phase, and the menstrual flow phase |
| Follicular Phase | GhRH is released and stimulates the pituitary gland to release both FSH and LH, follicles are stimulated by FSH and they secrete estradiol that results in a positive feedback system, which promotes follicle growth until it breaks the ovary |
| Luteal Phase | The LH stimulates the remaining tissue to form the Corpus Luteum gland that secretes progesterone, which combines with estradiol to stop the release of FSH and LH, making Corpus Luteum breakdown and allows the pituitary gland to secrete FSH, LH, and GnRH |
| Proliferative Phase | The growing follicle continues to secrete estradiol causing the endometrium to thicken |
| Secretory Phase | The endometrium continues to thicken due to the release of estradiol and progesterone, and a nutrient-rich fluid is created |
| Menstrual Flow Phase | The arteries of the ovaries constrict and release the ovarian hormones in the blood vessels left from the disintegration of the Corpus Luteum |
| Spermatogenesis | The formation of sperm, which can occur millions of times daily, through mitosis and meiosis, begins in the outer edge of the seminifourous tubules in a spermatocyte and develops as the cell approaches the center of the tube |
| Oogenesis | The formation of mature oocytes, which occurs in the embryo stage of a developing female, but once a female begins puberty FSH stimulates eggs to finish maturing every 28 days |
| Pathogen | An infectious, disease-causing agent |
| Barrier Defenses (Invertebrates) | The outer coverings of an organism that keeps out pathogens |
| Phagocytosis (Invertebrates) | Phagocytic hemocytes in the blood of invertebrates ingest and digest bacteria |
| Signaling | Hemocytes create antimicrobial peptides in response to a signal |
| Antimicrobial Peptide | A peptide that circulates and kills pathogens and are made by Toll proteins |
| Barrier Defense (Vertebrates) | A mucous membrane with lysozymes discover exposed organs and trap microbes to avoid the infection of the lungs |
| Phagocytosis (Vertebrates) | When white blood cells, neutrophils, macrophages, and eosinophils are signaled to engulf or trap pathogens, connect the engulfed vesicle with lysosomes to kill the pathogen |
| Toll-Like Receptor | A cell that recognizes pathogen characteristics and signals phagocytes to lyse them |
| Natural Killer | A cell that recognizes defective cels by the lack of a class 1 MHC protein on the outside, binds to, and kills the cell |
| Inflammatory Reponse | A puncture triggers macrophages and mast cells with packages of histamines to signal for capillaries to increase blood flow and results in phagocytosis and other signs of inflammation |
| Mast Cell | A connective cell |
| Histamine | A signal that is ready to secrete |
| Complement System | A 30-protein collection in the blood of vertebrates that ultimately lyse microbes by initiating cascades, when activated by substances on the surfaces of microbes |
| Interferon | A protein that is secreted by virus-infected body cells, recognizes viruses, and signals other cells to build defenses |
| Antigen | A foreign molecule recognized by lymphocytes to create a response |
| Lymphocyte | A cell that recognizes and targets antigens, molecules on the surface or pathogenic molecules |
| T Cell | A lymphocyte that is either a helper or a cytotoxic cell |
| Helper T-Cell | A cell that recognizes an antigen from an antigen-presenting cell, binds its t-cell receptor and a class II MHC, secretes cytokines for identical cells |
| Cytotoxic T-Cell | A cell that targets infected cells that have synthesized antigens attached to a Class I MHC by binding to them with a CD8 protein, secrete perforin molecules to form pores and granzymes to cause apoptosis |
| B-Cell | A cell with specific receptors for the same peptide as the helper T-Cell comes into contact with the antigen, internalizes it, and displays it with a Class II MHC molecule, which it uses to bind to another T-Cell and activates the B-Cell reproduce. |
| Plasma Cell | A B-Cell specialized to secrete immunoglobulins or antibodies that locate and neutralize pathogens |
| Memory Cell | A cell that stores the antigen design for a specific antibody for future use |
| Class I MHC Molecule | A molecule displayed on all cells in the body, except red blood cells, and is used to hold an antigen for a pathogen with which it is infected |
| Class II MHC Molecule | A molecule made by dendritic cells, macrophages, and B-Cells that is used to display antigens from internalized rather than infected pathogens for recognition by all T-Cells |
| Morphogenesis | The process through which an organism takes shape and specialized cells develop |
| Cytoplasmic Determinant | A molecule including protein and RNA that direct the organism's development |
| Polyspermy | The condition in which more than one sperm fertilizes the egg |
| Holoblastic Cleavage | The condition in which the cleavage furrow passes all the way through the cells |
| Meroblatic Cleavage | The condition in which the cleavage furrow only divides the region of the egg lacking yolk |
| Archenteron | The tube with a dead end that forms from the infolded vegetal pole |
| Organogenesis | The development of organs from germ layers |
| Amniote | An animal whose embryo is surrounded by a fluid inside a sac formed by a membrane called the amnion inside the shell or uterus |
| Cortical Reaction | The sperm attaches to the egg's jelly coat, hydrolytic enzymes are released from the sperm to break through the coat, actin filaments bind to specific receptors on the membrane, the fusion changes the membrane potential, and the receptors detach |
| Cleavage | The succession of rapid cell division of the zygote that results in a a fluid-filled blastula, but no growth |
| Blastula | The hollowed, spherical collection of over 128 cells that has a fluid-filled cavity called a blastocoel that forms in the animal hemisphere |
| What does the location of the yolk determine? | The part of the egg with the most yolk becomes the vegetal hemisphere, and the other part is the animal hemisphere |
| Gastrula | A blastula with an infolding, which will become the endoderm, and contains the archenteron and the blastopore opening |
| How does the neural tube develop? | The notochord develops from the mesoderm, the ectoderm becomes the neural plate that rolls into a tube and becomes the central nervous system, cells next to the notochord becomes vertebral and rib muscles, and the notochord forms discs between vertebrae |
| What does the ectoderm form? | Epidermis of skin and its derivatives, epithelial lining of the mouth and anus, cornea and lens of the eyes, nervous system, sensory receptors in the epidermis, adrenal medulla, tooth enamel, and the epithelium of pineal and pituitary glands |
| What does the mesoderm form? | Notochord, skeletal system, muscular system, muscular layer of stomach and intestine, excretory system, circulatory and lymphatic system, reproductive system except germ cells, dermis of skin, lining of body cavity, and adrenal cortex |
| What does the endoderm form? | Epithelial lining of digestive tract and respiratory system, lining of the urethra and urinary bladder and reproductive system, liver, pancreas, thymus, thyroid and parathyroid glands |
| Apical Ectodermal Ridge | A limb bud organization region at the tip of the limb bud that is responsible for its outward growth |
| Zone of Polarizing Activity | A limb bud organization region located where the posterior end of the limb is attached to the body and is responsible for the proper pattern of formation along the anterior-posterior axis |
| Hox Gene | A gene that determines which sides of the organism becomes dorsal, ventral, anterior, posterior, right and left sides, as well as which limb buds will become fore or hind limbs |
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