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Brain and thought
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| brainstem | region of brain that connects to spinal cord; comprised of midbrain, pons, medulla |
| hypothalamus | located below the thalamus; regulates homeostatic, circadian, reproductive functions. |
| cortex | the outermost later of the cerebrum |
| sulci vs. gyri | sulci are the grooves in the cortex; gyri are the ridges |
| somatosensory cortex in parietal lobe | |
| visual cortex in occipital lobe | |
| auditory cortex in temporal lobe | |
| nucleus | group of neurons with similar funcitons |
| glia | non-neuronal cell. ratio of 1:1 with neurons in the human brain; ratio of 1:2 in gray matter |
| soma | cell body |
| dendritic spines | protrusion from a dendrite that recieves info from a SINGLE synapse |
| axon hillock | also called the "initial segment" -- the part of the axon that connects to the soma |
| presynaptic terminals | the termination of the axon; also called bouton |
| synapse | the junction of two neurons |
| synaptic cleft | the physical space between the presynaptic and postsynaptic membrane |
| ligand-gated channel | IONOTROPIC, channel-linked receptor (the neurotransmitter binds directly to the channel to open it) |
| motor cortex | "president" -- sends the signal to motor neurons to move muscles. |
| cerebellum | provides feedback on the state of your muscles; sensitive to alcohol |
| thalamus | deciding which information (e.g. sensory) goes where; shuts off during sleep |
| basal ganglia | group of structures (caudate, putamen, GPi and GPe, nucleus accumbens) that is connected to the thalamus and regulates habits |
| autonomic nervous system | part of the nervous system that is responsible for subconscious (involuntary) functions |
| parietal cortex | integrates SPATIAL information -- tells you where you are |
| temporal cortex | associations between things |
| prefrontal cortex | planning, inhibiting inappropriate actions |
| amygdala | crucial role in emotions; such as feeling fear and pleasure |
| hippocampus | responsible for laying down memories. cortex here only has 2 layers! |
| pituitary gland | master gland of the endocrine (hormone) system |
| suprachaismatic nucleus | controls circadian rhythms |
| pyramidal cell | excitatory, long-reaching, spiny |
| stellate cels | excitatory, local, spiny |
| interneurons | inhibitory, local, aspiny |
| glutamate | most common excitatory neurotransmitter |
| GABA | most common inhibitory neurotransmitter; works by opening Chlorine channels on the postsynaptic membrane, thereby allowing Chlorine to enter the cell along with sodium, inducing much less net change in voltage |
| commisure | |
| meninges | |
| dura | protective cover on outside of brain |
| arachnoid | just beneath dura |
| pia | one-cell membrane under the arachnoid |
| reticulum | |
| Golgi stain | reveals neuronal cell bodies |
| Column | functional unit of the cortex |
| Brodmann | he discovered many different Cytoarchitechonic areas |
| Cytoarchitechture | distinct areas of cortex that are slightly different; specialized for diff purposes |
| heirarchical vs. parallel circuits | |
| networks | |
| olfactory cortex | in temporal lobe; has projections to sensory cortex that does NOT go through thalamus. cortex here only has 3 layers |
| nissl stain | reveals and proximal dendrites |
| voltage | difference in electrical charge between the inside and outside of the neuron |
| conductance | |
| resistance | |
| propagation | |
| reversal potential | the voltage at which there is no net flow of an ion across the membrane |
| myelin | series of Schwann cells that wrap around a neuron's axon, insulating it and allowing the action potential to travel much faster. in between the cells there are nodes of ranvier where there is a high concentration of sodium channels. |
| saltatory conduction | the process by which the action potential jumps from node to node |
| gap junction | a space between two neurons that does not use neurotransmitters to relay the message; if the first one fires an action potential, the other does as well |
| norepinephrine | neurotransmitter; catecholamine; binds to alpha2a, alpha1a, and beta receptors. important in the regulation of stress, sleep, feeding, attention. Locus coeruleus. |
| acetylcholine | the neurotransmitter found at neuromuscular junctions |
| dopamine | neurotransmitter; catecholamine; regulates reward/motivation, coordination of movement (basal ganglia!). Substantia nigra, ventral tegmental area. |
| serotonin | neurotransmitter; regulates sleep, important in depression. Raphe nuclei. |
| neuropeptides | a peptide (large molecule) that functions as a neurotransmitter |
| synthesis | creation of new neurotransmitters by specific enzymes |
| second messengers | |
| EPSP vs. IPSP | EPSP is a neurotransmitter-induced change in postsynaptic potential that INCREASES the likelihood the postsynaptic neuron will fire; IPSP is a postsynaptic potential change that DECREASES the likelihood the neuron will fire |
| summation | the idea that whether or not a neuron fires an action potential depends on whether there are enough signals within a short time (temporal summation) or whether other cells synapse simultaneously (spatial tuning) |
| histamine | neurotransmitter; regulates attention and arousal. Hypothalamus. |
| CT scan | shine xrays through head at many different angles; receptors on the other side pick up what it passed through and create a 3d image |
| PET scan | inject radioisotopes with very short 1/2 life; they go to parts of brain that are active and decay; the decay collides with an electron, producing 2 opposite gamma rays |
| SPECT scan | radioisotopes bind to blood cells, go to active areas; decay, and emit 1 gamma ray |
| X ray | 2-d scan of brain produced by shining x-ray through the brain to see what it passed through |
| MRI | use a magnet to line up water protons; then shake them up. they emit energy which is picked up by a radio detector |
| fMRI | deoxygenated vs oxygenated hemoglobin has different magnetic field; therefore, the radio receptors can pick up changes in magnetic field due to changes in blood flow |
| dorsal horn | afferents come into the dorsal horn |
| ventral horn | efferents go out of the ventral horn |
| afferents | nerve pathways going TO the spinal cord/brainstem |
| efferent | nerve pathways going AWAY from the spinal cord/brainstem |
| cervical | arm/back/head/neck |
| thoracic | trunk |
| lumbar | front of legs |
| sacral | back of legs |
| lower motor neurons (alpha motor neurons) | these motor neurons go to the muscles themselves; they are under voluntary control. |
| gamma motor neurons (gamma loop) | these go to the muscle spindles and tell them to keep being sensitive to stretch even if the muscle gets bigger and more contracted. allows you to build muscle |
| muscle spindles | inside the muscle; tells if the muscle is stretched |
| 1a spindle afferent | wraps around the muscle; if under passive stretch, it sends info to the |
| golgi tendon organ | fire when your muscle is contracted |
| synergist vs. antagonist muscles | synergist muscle is the muscle that contracts when under passive stretch; antagonist is the muscle that is told to relax. on the other hand, when the GTO tells the synergist muscle to relax and the antagonist muscle to contract |
| reflex | a signal that is sent just to the dorsal horn of the spinal cord, not all the way to brainstem |
| cortico-spinal tract | the nerve tract that runs up and down the spinal cord |
| upper motor neurons | |
| central sulcus | divides the frontal and the parietal lobes |
| primary motor cortex | controls your own actions; sends signal to do something |
| premotor cortex | fire when someone else does something or when you think about doing something |
| homonculus | the image of the man with big lips and hands to show that they are overrepresented in the PMC |
| topographic organization | the primary motor cortex is topographically organized, with the lips and hands being overrepresented bc there are the most receptors there |
| population response | the average response of a group of neurons, not just one neuron |
| plasticity | the connections and functions of many parts of the nervous system change based on experience; e.g. violin player's maps of his hands in SI changed as he played more and more |
| dorsal root ganglia | the part of the dorsal root (afferent from nerve endings to dorsal horn of spinal cord) that contains the cell bodies of the nerves |
| transduction of mechanical energy into neural signals | |
| proprioception | part of the sensory system that gives feedback about the state of YOUR OWN muscles |
| joint receptors | |
| mechanosensory | |
| rapidly adapting receptors | touch receptors that rapidly adjust to a stimulus and stop firing; these highlight changes in your environment. Meissner (superficial) and Pacinian (deep) |
| slow adapting receptors | touch receptors that do not become adjusted; they keep firing if there is constant pressure. Merkel (superficial) and Ruffini (deep) |
| 2 point discrimination | |
| receptive field | how spread out a receptor's dendrites are; if it has a small RF, activation gives very specific information; if large RF, doesn't really know where in the RF it was activated; less specific |
| somatosensory fovea | |
| free nerve ending | these are the receptors for nociception; they go to the dorsal horn, crossing right away, and then to thalamus |
| gating of pain by fine touch | your AB fiber for fine touch has a synapse on the dorsal horn projection neuron for the nociceptor, which, when fires, inhibits the nociceptor. so when you activate your AB fiber mechanically, it lessens the amount of pain you feel |
| opiate peptides, analgesia | drugs that lessen pain; e.g. enkephalin. they regulate experience of pain by inhibiting nociceptors. morphine mimics this |
| thalamic projections to VPL and VPM | thalamic projections to VPL give information about the body; projections to VPM convey information about the face |
| primary somatosensory cortex | areas 1, 2, 3a (proprioception), 3b (mechanosensory). information comes to the somatosensory cortices by LABELED LINE |
| higher order somatosensory cortex | SII: first place where both sides are integrated; area 5 (integrates conception about entire body parts), 7b (integrates conception of ENTIRE body -- lesion here in Man Who Fell Out of Bed) |
| olfactory bulb | place in temporal cortex where the axons from the OSNs converge |
| olfactory sensory neuron | bipolar receptor neurons located in the nose. they have cilia that extend from them, and they project to the olfactory bulb. each one expresses only ONE odorant receptor |
| odorant receptor | 7-transmembrane G-protein coupled receptors. each OSN expresses only ONE of these receptors. humans have 350 |
| local circuits | |
| primary afferent synapse | |
| glomeruli | located in the Olfactory bulb; the target of the OSNs. it is here that the pattern of activation is read. |
| external plexiform layer | |
| mitral cell | projeciton neurons that recieve sensory information and project it to higher cortical areas (the olfactory bulb) |
| periglomerular cell | regulate (inhibit) input to mitral cells |
| granule cell | regulate output of mitral cells to higher cortical regions |
| combinatorial code | the idea that what scent you're smelling is read as an overall PATTERN of activation in the glomeruli rather than as individual ORs |
| piriform cortex | very simple, 3-layer cortex to which the olfactory bulb projects. |
| odor ligand | odorants are ligands for the odorant receptors |
| 7-transmembrane receptor | ORs are this type of receptor |
| dendrodendritic synapse | |
| cilia | microvilli that come out from the odorant receptors that increase the surface area of the receptor |
| sustentacular cell | supporting cell to olfactory system, detoxifies the surrounding environment |
| basal cells | stem cells of the olfactory system; produce new OSNs if some of them die. it's the only sensory neurons that regenerate |
| 5 major categories of taste | salty, savory, sour, sweet, bitter (and umami -- unknown) |
| chemotopy | an INCORRECT view of how taste works -- that different parts of the tongue sense different tastes. |
| taste bud | onion shaped structures on tongue and pharynx that contain taste cells |
| papillae | elevations on tongue on which taste buds are: 3 types: fungiform, foliate, circumvallate |
| taste receptor cells | clustered in taste buds. can sense all 5 tastes. send information to the Nucleus of the Solitary Tract |
| cranial nerves in gustation | facial nerve, vagus nerve, glossopharyngeal nerve |
| amplitude | loudness of a sound |
| frequency | pitch of a sound |
| hair cells | the first cells that fire an action potential if mechanically activated |
| auditory nerve fibers | the nerve fibers that are efferent from the hair cells |
| tonotopy | there is a tonotopic organization of frequencies, with labeled lines up to the primary auditory cortex |
| tympanic membrane | ear drum |
| oval window | where the ossicles connect to the cochlea |
| ossibles | the three bones in your middle ear |
| conductive hearing loss | damage to inner ear or middle ear |
| sensorineural hearing loss | damage to inner hair cells |
| cochlea | the most important structure in the ear; snail shaped; filled with fluid. the fluid in the scala media is HIGH in K+; this is where transduction happens. it can also make sound which allows |
| basilar membrane | a membrane in the center of the cochlea; it differs in thickness from the apex (wide, flexible, low frequency) to the base (thin, stiff, high frequency) |
| tectorial membrane | the membrane on top of the hair cells. |
| stereocilia | the actual hair-like protrusions coming off the hair cells. all stereocilia are diffeerent link |
| tip links | the little links between each stereocilium. when the hair cells are moving back and forth, the tip links stretch. when the movement is toward the LONGest stereocilium, the tip links OPEN the channels and K+ rushes into the cell, depolarizing it |
| endolymph | the K+ fluid that is on the top division of the cochlea |
| perilymph | the K+ poor fluid that is on the bottom division of the cochlea |
| Inner Hair Cell | the cells that send 95% of information to the auditory nerve fiber. these are the actual sensory receptors |
| Outer Hair Cell | recieve efferent signals, help with tuning by actively contracting and relaxing |
| tuning curves | for a specific auditory nerve fiber, it shows all the different intensities for different frequencies |
| characteristic frequency | the lowest frequency that an auditory nerve fiber can sense |
| medial superior olive | allows you to localize sounds of low frequency by the time difference it takes to reach the MSO |
| lateral superior olive | allows you to localize sounds of high frequency by the intensity difference or |
| medial nucleus of the trapezoid body | the structure that inhibits the contralateral LSO |
| primary auditory cortex | the part of the cortex that consciously processes sounds |
| belt areas | the parts of the cortex around the primary auditory cortex that process complex sounds (e.g. speech) |
| visual field | what you can see; everything that is hitting your V1 (but NOT everything that you are consciously seeing) |
| retina | the innermost layer of the eye, containing the rods and the cones |
| cornea | outermost covering of the eye |
| lens | the little disk that focuses light |
| macula | the area surrounding the fovea on the retina |
| fovea | the area at the direct center of the retina; rods are pushed away. |
| photoreceptors (rods and cones) | rods are very sensitive to light but they are not very high clarity; cones are very high clarity and can also detect color |
| ganglion cells | the first cell in the visual system that actually fires an action potential. it is synapsed by the bipolar cells and amacrine cells |
| bipolar cells | the cells that receive input from the rods and cones. they respond opposite to glutamate that normal cells do (glutamate is inhibitory) |
| amacrine cells | the inhibitory interneurons of the bipolar - ganglion cell synapse |
| horizontal cells | the inhibitory interneuron on the rods and cones. |
| lateral inhibition | the idea that the photoreceptors surrounding a specific photoreceptor will affect how light or dark it seems, due to the lateral communication between photoreceptors due to horizontal cells |
| phototransduction | photorhodopsin changes shape under light --> transducin --> photodisasterase --> destroys cGMP which was holding sodium channels open --> they slam shut --> cell hyperpolarizes, cell releases less glutamate, BP cell fires more, ganglion cell fires more |
| rhodopsin | the light sensitive photopigment in photoreceptors |
| On center cell | the on center bipolar cell becomes depolarized in response to light because the light hyperpolarizes the photoreceptor, releasing less (here-inhibitory) glutamate, leaving the on-center bp cell free to fire |
| Off center cell | off center bp cell decreases its firing in response to light because hyperpolarization of the photoreceptor means it releases less (here-excitatory) glutamate, meaning that the on-center cell is firing less. |
| magnocellular cells | the big cells in the visual pathway for detecting motion. located in layers 1 and 2 of the LGN of the thalamus. |
| parvocellular cells | the relatively small cells in the visual pathway for detecting color. small visual fields. located in layers 3-6 of the LGN of the thalamus. |
| Where (M pathway) | the pathway ending up in the dorsal parietal cortex, helping you tell where you are / spatial relations. |
| What (p pathway) | the visual pathway ending up in the ventral inferior temporal cortex, helping you make associations / make sense of what you're seeing. |
| color: single and double opponent ganglion cells | |
| Porjections of the retina ganglion cells to the suprachiasmatic nucleus of hypothalamus for control of circadian rhythms | it helps regulate circadium rhythms. |
| superior colliculcus | the superior colliculus is in charge of regulating small eye movements |
| lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus | eye information goes here |
| optic chiasm | the first place where the nerves in the optic nerve go |
| ***???*** blobs and stripes ***???*** | ***???*** blob detection are specialized for detecting points in the visual field that differ from surrounding ***???*** |
| ocular dominance columns | certain neurons respond selectively to input from only one eye or the other; some respond to the difference between the two eyes. ocular dominance columns are crucial for accurately pouncing on your prey! |
| orientation columns | certain neurons in the visual cortex respond selectively to edges of a specific orientation |
| visual cortical areas V1, V2, V3, V4, MT/V5, 7, IT | V1=primary visual cortex. V4=color MT=motion |
| visual cortical areas v2, v3, 7, IT | v3=form 7a=maps of the world with reference points. 7b=integrates visual and somatosensory information |
| V4 | crucial for color processing. color and form are processed separately |
| IT | inferior temporal cortex --> majorly important in recognition. it's recognition independent of spatial location or orientation... like olfactory bulb!!. the IT cortex fires less when something is familiar, and amnesic patients retain this "familiarity" |
| STS | |
| fusiform gyrus | crucial for face recognition. lesions here resulted in prosopagnosia. some people think it is the "face" area, but some people think it is just the "expertise" area, because some people who are experts in "cars" -- this lights up. |
| parahippocampal gyrus | |
| binocular rivalry | different stimuli shown to two different eyes |
| binding | two different aspects of a stimulus are bound together into "object 1." although separate recognition of color and shape happens in temporal lobe, the binding of the two happens in the parietal lobe. |
| geon | a theory that says that all objects are broken down into simple geometric shapes. there are <40 geons, but billions of combinations. this is a "combinatorial" solution to the olfactory problem of billions of smells |
| degraded image | |
| visual agnosia | any deficit in recognition, resulting from damage to temporal lobe. you are AWARE of a stimulus, but you can't say what it IS. |
| prosopagnosia | inability to recognize faces. due to a lesion to your temporal lobe (patient LH) |
| Mr. P: musicologist | in Man Who Mistook, he had severe agnosia. he could not see things, but could not recognize them. learned to recognize by their smell and sound |
| Rey Osterich figure | a complicated image that a patient has to copy correctly. good performance on this task relies on many abilities; much parietal cortex but also PFC; allows assesment of parietal cortex lesions. |
| V2 depth stripes | these compare the difference between the images presented by your two eyes in order to give you a sense of depth |
| MT | area in the parietal cortex that processes movement (by temporal summation??). operates even if anesthetised or asleep. lesion causes you to see things like a slideshow. different columns are for different directions of motion. you have a map of near/far |
| parietal area 7a | area 7a makes maps of the world with reference points -- where things are in relation to each other. need to be conscious |
| LIP | area LIP makes maps that are body-based. need to be conscious |
| Posner's test of covert visual spatial attention orienting | raise your hand if you see a blue square on one side. if you have just seen a red circle, it takes longer to do this bc your attn has been shifted away. this is MAPPED in area 7a!!! |
| retrograde amnesia | forgetting memories you have already made |
| antereograde amnesia | inability to make new memories |
| declarative memory | memory of THINGS: words, events, history |
| procedural/habit memory | priming cues, procedural memory/puzzles, habits, associations |
| priming | when a circuit is used in cortex, more likely to use it again given a specific stimuli |
| HM and dr. scoville | "most instructive man in neuroscience" --> showed that without your hippocampus/medial temporal lobe you CANNOT form new memories |
| medial temporal lobe | located deep inside the temporal lobe. crucial for creating new memories, because it contains the hippocampi |
| hippocampus | cruical for forming new memories bc it amplifies information from the entorhinal cortex |
| CA1 | part of the hippocampus that shows much LTP |
| dentate gyrus | part of the hippocampus that the perforant path from the ER talks to |
| subiculum | |
| fornix | |
| perforant path | the path from the ER to the hippocampus. |
| entorhinal and perirhinal cortex | the ER talks to the hippocampus by way of the perforant pathway. the perirhinal cortex talks to the ER about OBJECT recognition |
| parahippocampal gyrus | the parahippocampal gyrus talks to the ER about SPATIAL recognition |
| prefrontal cortex | the frontmost part of the frontal cortex. crucial for planning, inhibiting inappropriate responses |
| associative learning | a type of LTP which strenthens a synapse if two synapses are fired together (by summation) |
| LTP and LTD | LTP=strengthening of the synapse due to much activation. it is bc new AMPA receptors are inserted into the membrane. also, new spines can form too. LTD=opposite |
| intralaminar thalamic nuclei and medialdorsal thalamus | these project to the medial temporal lobe and put it in "awake" mode. destroyed in korsakoff's amnesia. |
| mamilary bodies of hypothalamus | |
| Korsakoff's amnesia | type of amnesia caused by destruction of the intralaminar nuclei of the thalamus. it is caused by a vitamin B1 (aka THIAMINE) deficiency, most likely seen in chronic alcoholics. causes both antereograde and retrograde amnesia. results in CONFABULATION. |
| Alzheimer's disease | disease in which plaques and tangles affect the ER, disconnecting the hippocamps from the cortex. affects object recognition, spatial recognition, language, pfc. eventually spreads to cortex, destroying retrograde memories as well. VIDEO PATIENT "BOB" |
| NMDA and AMPA receptors | glutamate receptors; new ones are inserted into the postsynaptic membrane in hippocampus in LTP |
| confabulation | telling a story as fact that did not actually happen; you don't know what happened so you sort of "guess" what must have happened. |
| dementia | severe loss of cognitive ability, more than normal aging. to be "dementia" it must have impaired SOCIAL functioning. |
| apolipoprotein E | risk factor for developing early onset AD. depends on number of alleles you have. |
| beta-amyloid plaques | affect ER |
| neurofibrillary tangles | affect ER |
| immunization experimental treatments | |
| mini-mental status exam | ask patient to remember words over a short time; could not do it. ask to tell current events, past events. what day it is. subtract from 100s by 7s. |
| habit memory | |
| basal ganglia | caudate/putamen/globus pallidus/substantia nigra/nucleus accumbens |
| parallel circuits | there is a direct and indirect circuit for regulating habits; they occur in parallel |
| cognitive loop | pfc to caudate to SNpr to thalamus; pfc to caudate to GPe to subthalam to SNpr to thal |
| motor loop | motor cortex to putamen to GPi to thal; motor cortex to putamen to GPe to subthal to GPi to thal |
| affective loop | amygdala to nuc accumbens to ventral palladum to SNpr to thal |
| subthalamic nucleus | this excites the SNpr and GPi, which inhibit the thal. therefore, when it is firing, the thalamus is more excited |
| Globus pallidus | the structures in the basal ganglia that project to the thalamus (direct loop) or to the subthalamic nucleus (indirect loop) |
| substantia nigra pars compacta | dopamine making cells |
| substantia nigra pars reticulata | connected to the GPi; input to thalamus |
| direct pathway | stimulated by dopamine D1 receptors; drives input to thalamus |
| indirect pathway | stimulated by dopaminergic D2 receptors; inhibits input to thal |
| parkinsons disease | the cells that produce dopamine die; too little dopamine. therefore, your BG is not active enough and you have trouble initiating movements |
| Huntington's disease | selective death of the D2 receptors for the indirect pathway. there is not enough fine tuning of your movements; you make jerky movements |
| Dopamine D1 and D2 receptors | D1 is for direct; D2 is for indirect |
| ventral tegmental area | base of midbrain; another place that makes dopamine |
| amygdala | small structure in brain that is responsible for regulating much of our emotional experience; such as fear or pleasure |
| PTSD | a disorder caused by chronic stress, and therefore increased amygdala and NE |
| central nucleus of the amygdala | |
| stria terminalis | |
| conditioned fear paradigm | the idea that you can condition someone to be scared of something even if it was previously neutral, by consistently pairing it with an affective stimulus. LTP in hippocamus: building new spines associated with the stimulus. |
| extinction | if you no longer pair the simulus with the affective one, the condition will go away (LTD) |
| fear-potential startle | |
| norepinephrine | neurotransmitter. made in the locus coerulus. important in governing memory retention and stress response. increased in emotions and stress. fine tunes spatial tuning. alpha1a, 2a, and beta2 receptors |
| beta adrenergic receptors | the highest threshold for NE activation. it acts as a chemical switch to strengthen amygdala under stress conditions. blocker is propranolo |
| alpha1a receptor | second highest threshold for NE activation. also chemical switch. blocker is prazosin |
| alpha2a receptor | low threshold for NE activation. if stimulated, acts as a swich OFF for amygdala function. |
| propranolol | blocker for beta 2 receptors |
| prazosin | blocker for alpha1a receptor |
| guanfacine | stimulator for alpha2a receptor |
| Reversal learning | |
| Extinction | |
| Orbital PFC | |
| Frontal pole | |
| SSRI | |
| ketamine |
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