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Very Last A & P Exam
We made it: The last A & P Exam
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What is the environment in the medulla of the kidney like? | very salty so osmosis can take place |
| What does "reabsorption" in tubular reabsorption mean? | reabsorbing means pulling stuff out of the urine in the tubules and back into the capillaries |
| How are sodium ions reabsorbed into capillaries? | using active transport. Active transport can move things from low concentration to high. |
| How does the chloride move from the froximal convoluted tubule back into capillaries? | passively, they are very small. |
| How does water flow out of the tubule back inot capillaries? | by osmosis |
| How do the kidneys regulate blood pressure? | by maintaining salt and water balance |
| How doe salts, especially NaCl affect blood pressure? | NaCl is the most abundant conpound in plasma. The more NaCl in the plasma they greater the blood volume (where sodium goes, water follows) and the greater blood volume produces greater blood pressure. |
| What are the other three ions that need to be regulated by the kidneys? | potassium, bicarb and calcium (they are kept within a narrow range) |
| Why do we need acid base balance? | our normal system produces a lot of acid so we need to counterract it with base so it can be neutralized and excreted. |
| Where is the juxtaglomerular apparatus? | in the distal tubule |
| What creates hydrostatic pressure in ureters? | paristalsis |
| Does the urethra use paristalsis? | no, per Hopkin gravity is somewhat involved in emptying the bladder. Contraction or release od smooth and skeletal muscle also involved |
| How much fluid goes thru the kidneys/filter per day? | 180L |
| How much of the 180 liters is reabsorbed? | 99% |
| How much sodium goes through the filter per day? | 630g and 99.5% is reabsorbed |
| How much water and sodium is excreted per day? | 1.8L of water and 3.2 grams of sodium (we need to consume 3.2 grams of sodium per day) |
| What does the nephron loop do? | urine coming out of the nephron loop is always the same. If blood plasma is has lower osmotic pressure than water will exit the nephron loop and join the plasma. The water is moved out of the loop if needed based on the osmotic pressure of the plasma. |
| What is osmolality of blood? | 200mosml |
| What is the capillary that runs next to the tubule called? | the peritubular capillary |
| What hormone regulates the secretion of ions? | aldosterone |
| What does alkaline tide mean? | the last bit of urine produced after a meal is alkaline related to the overproduction of bi-carb in response to a meal |
| What does acid base balance mean>? | pH is kept within a normal range by excreting hydrogen ions and reabsorbing bicarbonate ions. Urine usually has a pH of 6 or lower |
| What are the major things reabsorbed in the proximal and distal tubules? | proximal=water, distal=NaCl (Water may be pulled out again in the collecting duct) |
| What does it mean to deaminate an amino acid? | take off ammonia and make urea |
| What are some facts about urea? | it is a products of the breakdown of amino acids, there is a relationship between urea level and amount of protein in diet, it enters the tubules thru glomerulus, 50% reabsorbed and 50% excreted |
| What are some facts about uric acid? | product of nucleic acid metabolism, enters renal tubules thru glomerular filtration, 100% is reabsorbed, 10% secreted and excreted thru active tubular secretion |
| What is renal clearance? | the volume of plasma that can be completely cleared of a substance (creatinine clearance: since all creatinine that goes through the filter gets excreted you can measure kidney function by the lengh of time it takes to excrete all creatinine.) |
| What does a renal clearance test deternmine? | glomerular filtration rate |
| Does the content of urine change between the caylyces, renal pelvis and ureters? | no |
| What is the path of urine starting at the collecting ducts? | renal papillae, minor and major calyces, renal pelvis, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra and then to the outside world. |
| What are the characteristics of ureters? | 25 cm long, runs parallel to vertebral column, in the back of the peritoneal cavity, in pelvic cavity joins urinary bladder, |
| What are the three layers of the wall of the ureter? | mucous coat, muscular coat, fibrous coat |
| What can lower filtrations rate? | a decrease in BP |
| Whose bladder is larger? | males |
| What is BUN? | amount of urea in blood |
| How long is the urethra? | 3-4 cm in females, 18-20 cm in males |
| What are the two sphincters of the urethra? | internal urethral sphincter (smooth muscle, involuntary control) and external urethral sphincter (skeletal muscle, voluntary control)(sympathetic keeps it closed and parasympathetic allows it to open) |
| Is the female bladder behind the uterus? | no, in front of the uterus |
| What are the three regions of the male urethra? | prostatic, membranous urethra (goes through pelvic floor) and spongy urethra |
| What nerves allow for micturation? | sacral spinal nerves |
| How does the prostate create urinary problems in older men? | It grows with age and causes constriction of the urethra. |
| What are the characteristics of micturation? | bladder distends & stretch receptors are stimulated, sacral spinal nerves stim, detruser muscle contracts, need to urinate is sensed, voluntary contraction of ext. sphincter prevents urination. To pee:ext sphincter relaxes & detruser contracts |
| Life span changes in renal system: | we are born with millions of nephrons but by age 80 kidneys have lost 1/3 of their mass (r/t loss of glomeruli), renal tubules thicken, protenuria, poor clearance, less elasticity, holds less urine (damage is progressive) |
| Do you need 2 kidneys? | no can survive on 1/2 a kidney |
| How does diabetes affect kidney? | sugar in urine can damage kidney, diabetes can kill the whole nephron |
| Do kidnesys monitor blood flow? | yes |
| How is GFR controlled? | by controlling blood pressure |
| What are the three mechanisms for regulating GFR? | autoregulation, sympathetic control(overrides autoregulation) and hormonal mechanism (renin and angiotensin, longer action, several systems affected) |
| What is autoregulation? | maintenence within the kidneys of a relatively stable GFR over a wide range of systemic blood pressures. |
| What is the stable systolic BP range? | 80-170 mmhg (the system cannot compensate for extreme BP) |
| Renal autoregulation prevents changes (increse or decrease) in BP from reaching the glomerulus. | an increase in BP will cause constriction of afferent arterioles and dilation of efferent arterioles. A decrease in BP will cause the afferent arterioles to dilate and the efferent arterioles to constrict |
| What is the myogenic mechanism of renal autoregulation of GFR? | as BP increases, afferent arteriole stretches which caused it to constrict and this restores GFR |
| What is tubuloglomerular feedback? | macula densa on distal convoluted tubule monitors tubular fluid and signals juxtaglomerular cells to constrict afferent arterioles to decrease GFR. |
| Is autoregulation a positive or negative feedback system? | negative |
| What are the effects of decreased blood flow to kidneys? | hypoxia leading to kidney damage. |
| How does shock affect GFR? | strenuous exercise or shock redirects blood to heart brain and skeletal muscles. GFR is decreased and urine production is also decreased. |
| What are three ways to incease BP and GFR? | aldosterone (slow), ADH (a little faster) and constriction of vessels (fast) |
| How much blood is in the body? | 5L |
| How much of the blood is rbc's and plasma? | 45% RBC's(hematocrit) and 55% plasma (92% of plasma is water) |
| What do electrolytes become in water? | ions (electrolytes are dissolved ionic compounds) |
| What is a solvent for ionic compounds? | water (addind electrolytes to water changes its tonicity/osmolarity) |
| What kinds of things affect osmolarity? | everything dissolved in the blood/water: sodium, potassium, chloride, bicarb, sugar, amino acids etc. |
| Whaere is most of the water in the body found? | INSIDE of cells (63% inside cells and 37% extracellular) |
| How much water is in the body? | 40-42 liters |
| What is the function of PO4? | part of buffer system, neutralizes HCl. |
| What ion is found inside cells? | sodium (potassium outside cells) |
| What is in a crystalloid solution? | ions dissolved in water |
| What is in a colloid solution | protein which is a greater osmotic pressure and will pull water into the vascular space. |
| What areas can produce third spacing? | dermis, body cavities. Fluid in third space shouldn't be there, does not circulate and is not useful |
| Is D5W really isotonic? | no, once the dextrose gets into cells the fluid becomes hypotonic |
| What dectects increasing fluid concentration? | osmoreceptors |
| Does sweating facilitate water balance? | no, used for thermoregulation |
| What are examples of sensible water loss? | urination, sweating, defacation |
| What are examples of insensible loss? | vapors across membranes and vapors lost thru respiration |
| Why do you have to sonsume salt daily? | electrolytes are also lost when water is lost |
| What hormone helps regulate sodium and potassium balance? | aldosterone. It tells renal tubules to conserve sodium and excrete potassium |
| What are some causes of sodium imbalances? | hyponatremia=diarrhea, ineffective response to aldosterone, water intoxication. Hypernatremia=dehydration through sweating or weak response to ADH |
| What are some causes of potassium imbalances? | hypokalemia=exaggerated response to aldosterone. hyperkalemia=retention of potassium by kidney or acidosis |
| What are some causes of calcium imbalances? | hypocalcemia=weak response to PTH, malabsorbption of Vit D. Hypercalcemia=exaggerated response to PTH, cancer b/c it can activate genes that shouldn't be activated |
| How can PO4 get dumped? | It is a negative ion (anion) and can follow positive ions (cations) |
| Why do RBC's produce lactic acid? | they lack mitochondria |
| Do most metabolic processes produce acid or base? | acid and they body disposes of excess acid quite efficiently |
| What are they three ways the body maintains acid base balance? | resp secretion of CO2 (slow), renal secretion of H+ (very slow) and buffer system (very fast) |
| If normal pH is 7.35 to 7.45, what is the broader survival range? | 6.8-8 |
| What is a buffer? | a weak acid or a weak base (a strong acid can react with a weak base to make a weak acid or neutral compound) |
| HCl + HCO3(carbonic acid) makes what? | H2CO3 + Cl (bicarb) This is the formula for the bicarbonte buffer |
| HCl + NaOH makes what? | NaCl and H2O |
| Where does carbonic acid come from? | CO2+H2O (produced by carbonic anhydrase from RBC's) |
| Where does the phosphate in the blood come from? | using ATP for energy and breakdown of bone (calcium phosphate). The phosphate is a negative ion and a weak base. It can absorb H+ ions |
| Can proteins/amino acids be buffers? | yes. Some have an end that can pick up H+. Varies depending on the amino acid. |
| Name the three "players" in the chemical buffer system: | bicarb, phosphate and protein (Chemical buffer system PREVENTS large changes in pH) |
| Name the physiological buffers: | Respiratory excretion of CO2 and Renal excretion of H+ (Physiological buffer system CORRECTS changes in pH) |
| According to Hopkin, what is the point of the chemical buffer system? | to make consuming acidid food have a minimal effect on pH. (I would like to add that it also neutralized byproducts of cellular metabolism) |
| What types of illnesses can affect acid base balance? | renal, respiratory, GI and probably more but these are the biggies |
| What suspends the testes in the scrotum? | spermatic cord |
| What stimulates the descent of the testes? | testosterone |
| Connective tissue subdivides the testes into many _____? | lobules. The lobules contain seminiferous tubules |
| What is the highly coiled tube on the surface of the testes? | epididymis |
| What is the process by which sperm cells are formed? | spermatogenisis |
| What do you call immature sperm cells formed from secondary spermatocytes during meiosis? | spermatids |
| How many chromosomes does a sperm cell have ? | 23 |
| What do you call the front of the sperm head that contains enzymes? | acrosome |
| Where do sperm cells mature? | in the epididymis (the highly coild tube on the surface of the testes) |
| Which monosaccharide is found in seminal fluid? | fructose |
| What is the general pH of protate fluid? | alkaline |
| What glands secrete a fluid that lubricates the male urethra? | bulbourethral glands |
| What is the meiosis of egg formation called? | oogenesis |
| What do you call flattened epithelial cells that closely surround the primary oocyte? | follicular cells |
| What is produced when a primary oocyte divides? | a secondary oocyte and a polar body |
| What hormone stimulates primordial follicles to to develop into primary follicles? | FSH |
| What do you call the inner mucosal lining of the uterus? | endometrium |
| What is myometrium made of? | muscle |
| What do you call the group of accessory organs that surround the openings of the urethra and vagina? | vulva |
| What surrounds the cell membrane of an oocyte? | zona pellucida |
| What process to zygotes use to divide? | mitosis |
| What do you find on the inner lining of the uterine tube that aids in moving the developing embryo? | cilia |
| How long does it take for a newly formed zygote/embryo to reach the uterine cavity? | three days |
| What do you call the solid ball of cells formed in early development? | morula |
| What do you call the hollow ball of cells formed in early development? | blastocyst |
| How long is the embryonic phase of development? | it lasts until the end of the 8th week |
| When does the fetal period start? | after the eighth week and lasts until birth |
| What is the name of the germ layer that gives rise to muscle and bone tissues? | mesoderm |
| What is the inner cell mass? | blastocyst cells that give rise to embryo proper |
| What do you call the outer wall of a blastocyst? | trophoblast |
| What do you call the inner germ layer of the embryonic disk? | endoderm |
| What do you call the outer germ layer of the embryonic disk? | ectoderm |
| What do you call the tissue that connects the embryo to the developing placenta? | connecting stalk |
| What do you call the slender extensions that grow out from the trophoblast? | chorionic villi |
| What do you call the embryonic membrane that is attached to the edge of the embryonic disc and surrounds the developing body? | amnion |
| What are the three blood vessels in the ubilical cord? | two arteries and one vein |
| What two structures function to form blood cells during the early stages of development? | yolk sac and allantois |
| When are all essential external and internal body parts formed? | during the EMBRYONIC stage of development |
| What fluid forms a watery cushion around the embryo? | amniotic |
Created by:
Merrill15888
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