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Scientists-FirstWeek
Test 1
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Lucretious | came up with the germ theory-diseases are caused by invisible living creatures. |
| Origins of invisible creatures: | 1.) Spontaneous Generation 2.) Organisms arise de novo (from scratch) from nonliving things. |
| Robert Hooke | Published first drawing of microorganism. |
| Micrographia | description of how to make microscopes |
| Antonie van Leevwenhoek | FATHER OF MICROBIOLOGY. He drew bacteria and protozoa. "wee animalcules" and reported to the Royal Socrets of London |
| Development of Microbiology | Microbiology developed in the 19th century-now better, improved staining. |
| Microbiology is applicable to two questions: | 1.) Spontaneous Generation? 2.) Nature of contagious disease? |
| Who asked this question: Can living organisms develop from nonliving material? | Aristotle, Van Helmont,Francisco REd |
| Aristotle | invertebrates could develop from nonliving bacteria |
| Van Helmont | Mice from wheat |
| Francisco Red | Maggots do not arise spontaneously |
| Who asked this question: Did it occur for Microorganisms? | Lais Jobet, John Needham, Comte de Buffon, Schroder Van Dush, Shultze Schwann, Lazzaro Spallaazani, Anton Lavosier, Lewis Pasteur |
| Lais Jobet | NO!!! Hay infusions-sterile water, hay, drop of water under the microoscope. |
| John Needham | YES!!! 'Vital Force' from infusions |
| Comte de Buffon | YESSS!!!! |
| Schroder van Dush | NOOO!!!! filtered air |
| Schwann Shultze | NOOO!!!! heated air |
| Lazzaro Spallanazani | NO!!!!!!! air may carry germs. He described bacterial binary fission. |
| GERMS? | bacteria, microbes, parasites and their products |
| Anton Lavoiser | Air contains oxygen-bot enough oxygen enclosed in flask to support microbes |
| Louis Pasteur(1822-1895-Spontaneous Generation | The FINAL refutation of spontaneous generation-->1861 |
| Sterilization | killing of ALL organisms on/in an object. it is important for organism isolation. We want to look at that one organism at the time instead of the others. |
| Sterilization is important because: | it is critical for development of microbiology. canning/preservation of food. cotton stoppers used in microbiology |
| Robert Koch(1874) | found spore-like bodies in Bacillus anthracis |
| John Tyndall(1876-77) | Heat-resistant life forms present. Dust DOEs carry microbes |
| Ferdinand Cohn(1876) | Named heat-resistant forms of bacteria "endospores" Under the wrong conditions the bacteria will form endospores that will produce bacteria and toxins when the right conditions are met again. |
| Endospore producing bacteria | Bacillus and Clostridia |
| Galen (150AD) | the nature of contagious disease was due to an imbalance between the 4 humors. |
| The 4 Humors | Blood, Phlegm, Yellow Bile and Black Bile |
| Girolamo Fracastoro (1546) | Revised Lucretious germ theory. Invisible organisms-germs- caused diseases |
| Agostino Bassi de Lodi (1835) | potato famine. Silk worm disease was caused by fungus |
| M.J. Berkely (1845) | Potato blight in Ireland(1846)was caused by fungus |
| Heinrich de Bary (1853) | Smuts and rusts caused cereal crop diseases |
| Louis Pasteur(1857) | REVISED the Germ Theory of Disease. discovered that pebrine disease of silkworms due microosporan Mosema bombysis |
| Jacob Henle & Robert Koch (1877) | studied Bacillus anthracis. Henle established criteria to relate anthrax to Bacillys anthracis. Koch performed empirical studies; he used postulates in etiology of tuberculosis in 1884. |
| Pathogenicity | Variability-how it begins vary between organisms |
| Virulence | how severe it affects vary between strands |
| Koch's Postulates (1884) | 1. MC must be present in every case of the disease. 2. MC must be grown in pure culture from diseased hosts. 3. the SAME MC must be produced when the pure culture is introduced to a susceptible host. 4. the MC must be recovered from the new infected host. |
| Koch's MOLECULAR Postulates 1-4 | 1. the VFG or its product should be found in the pathogenic strains of the MC. 2.Mutating the VG to disrupt its funciton should reduce the V of the MC. 3. Reversion of the mutated VG or replacement with a WTV should restore the V of the strain. |
| Koch's MOLECULAR Postulates 5-6 | 5. Genes should be expressed sometime during infection and disease process. 5. Antibodies(immune system cells directed against gene products) protect host. Host must have a stable immune system to begin with. |
| Ignaz Semmelweis (1847) | hand washing prevents peruperal fever. used chlorine as an antiseptic. |
| Joseph Lister (1865) | sterilization of instruments with heat. phenol is an antiseptic. when phenol loses the H from the OH group, the lone pair of electrons left will ATTACK! |
| Sir Edward Jenner (1798) | first vaccination-SMALLPOX |
| Pasteur-Vaccinations | rabies |
| Development of vaccines | most of 20th Century |
| Development of antibiotics | 1910-1930, 1940-1960s |
| PATHOGENS | 1407 Human Pathogens |
| Bacteria Pathogens | 538/9994 |
| Viruses Pathogens | 208/~5450+ |
| Fungi Pathogens | 317/99,000+ |
| Helminths Pathogens | 287 |
| Protozoans Pathogens | 57 |
| Naegleria fowleri | a type of amoeba. it causes brain damage. it is found in fresh water and it can go into your body through your nose when you swim. it affects the meninges. |
| Can all microbial diversity be detected?? | NOOOO!! only 0.4% of all bacteria in the natural world can be cultured. Direct microscopic counts exceed viable cell counts by orders of magnitude. great plate count anomaly. |
| Seawater: % that can be grown in the lab | 0.001-0.01 |
| Freshwater: % that can be grown in the lab | 0.25 |
| Mesotrophic Lake | 0.1-1 |
| Unpolluted Estuarine Waters | 0.1-3 |
| Activated Sludge | 1-15 |
| Sediments | 0.25 |
| Soil | 0.3 |
| Pure Cultures | Contain single strain of organism. about 1million cells are needed to be able to see colony with the naked eye. This was first done by Robert Koch. |
| Agar | polysaccharide from seaweed (Agar agar). Used by Fannie Eilshemius Hesse. |
| Fannie Eilshemius Hesse (1880s) | MOTHER OF MICROBIOLOGY. Solidified media. |
| Richard Petri (1887) | developed container to hold solidified media. ie. petri dish |
| Sergei Winogradsky (1887-1890) | soil bacteriology described lithotrophy. used a model system. |
| Martinius Beijerinck | Use enrichment cultures. Nitrogen fixation. |
| Ronald Atlas | Modern methods of microbial ecology |
| Rita Colwell | worked with vibrios. "viable but nonculturable bacteria" |
| Lynn Marguelis | Endosymbiont hypothesis- gave rise to mitochondria and chloroplast. |
| Thomas Brock | discovered archaeons |
| Norm Pace | sequenced thermophiles |
| Carl Woese & George Fox | also described archaeons. used 16S rRNA. developed "domains" |
| Craig Venter | Sequencing of bacterial genomes |
| Claire Frasier | Sequencing of bacterial genome |
| Karen Nelson (2002) | Sequencing of bacterial genome-Thermotoga |
| Hamilton Smith-Nobel Laureate (1978) | Sequencing of bacterial genome-H.influenzae |
| Prokaryotic Cell Organisms | bacteria and archaea-9994 as of 2010 |
| Eukaryotic Cell Organisms | fungi, algae, protozoans |
| Viruses | acellular-no metabolism; DNA or RNA as genetic material.18-300nm obligate intercellular parasites- 5450 as of 2008 |
| Epulopiscium fishelsoni | (600x80mcm) |
| Tiomargarita namibiensis | (0.2 -0.6mm) |
| Nanoarchaeum equitans | (350-500nm) [associates on surface of another archaeon Ignicoccus horpitalis. |
| Sanger-Nicholson Fluid Mosaic Model | two asymmetric leaflets of membrane creating a bilayer. there is cholesterol in membrane. HOWEVER not all prokaryotic cells contain cholesterol. |
| Integral Proteins found in the membrane | 80% span membrane; firmly associated with lipid bilayer; extract with detergents. ie. woolite |
| Transmembrane Proteins | amphitrophic transport proteins. found in both the cytosol and membrane |
| Peripheral Proteins | 20% bond to polar lipid heads; electrostatic interactions and hydrogen bonding. |
| Cell Membrane Functions | selective barrier-prevents leakage. holds cytoplasm. transport system. receptors. metabolic processes. generate energy and electric potential. |
| CMF- Electric Potential | negative charge in-positive charge out. |
| CMF- Proton-Motive Force | [OH- in, H+ out] |
| Carrier Mediated Transport: Carriers | allow concentration of nutrients inside cell. specific. synthesis of transport proteins regulated by cell. get maximal rate (Vmax) of solute transport at low external concentrations |
| Cell Membrane | Surrounds cytoplasm. no sterols in bacteria. ONE exception. Mycoplasma. |
| Cell Wall | cell membrane + peptidoglycan. NO PG in archaeons. |
| Cell Envelope | Cell membrane + PG + outer membrane if its a Gm-. + the S layer |
| Peptidoglycan is unique to bacteria! | What? |
| Cell Wall Functions: | shape and strength. protection from toxins, osmotic pressure. it also determines the microorganism's pathogenicity. |
| Peptidoglycan Functions: | gives cells rigidity. consists of alternating units of two modified sugars-NAM &NAG.NAG units connected by tetrapeptide bonds. |
| NAM | N-acetylmuramic acid |
| NAG | N-glucosamine |
| Peptidoglycan Cool Facts | it is also called murein.actually forms a sac around bacterial cell. PG does not float in periplasm, it is attached to the outer membrane by lipoproteins.in Gm+, PG is connected to the cytoplasm by lipoteichoic acid |
| Lysozyme | destroys PG.normally found in egg whites. also found in phagolysosomes in euk. cells. cleaves bonds between NAM &NAG. causes removal of PG layer. |
| Protoplast | Gm+ cell with PG removed |
| Speroplast | Gm- cell with PG removed |
| Gm- Component of Cell Wall: Lipopolysaccharide | Lipid A or endotoxin are the anchors. the core contains NAG, Glc, Gal, KDO. then there is an O chain that contains hexoses and unusual sugars. |
| Glycocalyx Functions | Attachment to substrate, host, other cells.Not required for growth but it gives them that little extra.Protection of cell from host, desiccation, viruses, toxins.Consists of polysaccharide or protein containing D-amino acids. Capsule and slime layer. |
| Glycocalyx-Capsule | well organizzed. Streptococcus, Bacillus, Meningococcus. |
| Glycocalyx-Slime Layer | Pseudomonas, Eikenella |
| What virus attacks bacteria? | Bacteriophages |
| Flagella | long thin protein appendages that are 20nm wide. |
| Monotrichous | one hair-polar. Vibrio, Pseudomonas, |
| Apitrichous | Both/Either |
| Lophotrichous | tuft |
| Peritrichous Arrangement | found in E.coli and Salmonella |
| Fimbriae/Pili | shorter than flagella. similar structure. few/cell (1-10)/ |
| Fimbriae/ Pili Functions | transfer DNA during conjugation. Attachment of pathogens. Adhesin is located on tip and allows binding to host cell. receptors for certain viruses. |
| Nucleoid | not membrane bound. DNA located here, dsDNA. circular, supercoiled. |
| How big is E.coli? | 1-2micrometers. |
| Ribosomes | located in cytoplasm for prokaryotes and in the ER for eukaryotes. protein +rRNA. |
| Prokaryotic Ribosomes | 50S + 30S = 70S |
| Eukaryotic Ribosomes | 60S +40S = 80S |
| Endospores | formed inside some Gm+ bacteria. resistant to harsh conditions. position in cell used for ID. |
| Endospore Structure | exosporium-thin. spore coat- thick, protein. cortex-thick, PG, dipicolinic acid and calcium ions. core-cell |
| Macronutrients | C, H, P, N, S, K, Ca, Mg, Fe |
| Micronutrients | usually enzyme cofactors. Mn, Zn, Mo, Co, Ni, Cu, Si, Na |
| Anabolism | build up of nutrients. synthesis of subunits needed for macromolecules. |
| Catabolism | break down of nutrients to release energy |
| Autotroph | Organism |
| Lysozyme | destroys PG.normally found in egg whites. also found in phagolysosomes in euk. cells. cleaves bonds between NAM &NAG. causes removal of PG layer. |
| Protoplast | Gm+ cell with PG removed |
| Speroplast | Gm- cell with PG removed |
| Gm- Component of Cell Wall: Lipopolysaccharide | Lipid A or endotoxin are the anchors. the core contains NAG, Glc, Gal, KDO. then there is an O chain that contains hexoses and unusual sugars. |
| Glycocalyx Functions | Attachment to substrate, host, other cells.Not required for growth but it gives them that little extra.Protection of cell from host, desiccation, viruses, toxins.Consists of polysaccharide or protein containing D-amino acids. Capsule and slime layer. |
| Glycocalyx-Capsule | well organizzed. Streptococcus, Bacillus, Meningococcus. |
| Glycocalyx-Slime Layer | Pseudomonas, Eikenella |
| What virus attacks bacteria? | Bacteriophages |
| Flagella | long thin protein appendages that are 20nm wide. |
| Monotrichous | one hair-polar. Vibrio, Pseudomonas, |
| Apitrichous | Both/Either |
| Lophotrichous | tuft |
| Peritrichous Arrangement | found in E.coli and Salmonella |
| Fimbriae/Pili | shorter than flagella. similar structure. few/cell (1-10)/ |
| Fimbriae/ Pili Functions | transfer DNA during conjugation. Attachment of pathogens. Adhesin is located on tip and allows binding to host cell. receptors for certain viruses. |
| Nucleoid | not membrane bound. DNA located here, dsDNA. circular, supercoiled. |
| How big is E.coli? | 1-2micrometers. |
| Ribosomes | located in cytoplasm for prokaryotes and in the ER for eukaryotes. protein +rRNA. |
| Prokaryotic Ribosomes | 50S + 30S = 70S |
| Eukaryotic Ribosomes | 60S +40S = 80S |
| Endospores | formed inside some Gm+ bacteria. resistant to harsh conditions. position in cell used for ID. |
| Endospore Structure | exosporium-thin. spore coat- thick, protein. cortex-thick, PG, dipicolinic acid and calcium ions. core-cell |
| Macronutrients | C, H, P, N, S, K, Ca, Mg, Fe |
| Micronutrients | usually enzyme cofactors. Mn, Zn, Mo, Co, Ni, Cu, Si, Na |
| Anabolism | build up of nutrients. synthesis of subunits needed for macromolecules. |
| Catabolism | break down of nutrients to release energy |
| Autotroph | Organism |
| Chemolithoautotrophs | theyare aerobic, they use inorganic chemicals as an energy source. they are ecologically important |
| Chorophyll a | Cyanobacteria |
| Bacteriochlorophyll | purple, green bacteria |
| General Reaction | 6CO2 +12H2X -> C6H12O6 +12X + 6H2O |
| Oxygenic-water is the source | eukaryote and cyanobacteria |
| Anoxygenic-hydrogen sulfide is the electron transporter | prokaryotes (purple and green) |
| Photoautotrophs | cyanobacteria-anabaena, microcystis, oscillatoria |
| Photoheterotrophs | Rhodopseudomonas, Rhodobacter |
| Chemoautotrophs | Thermus aquaticus, Pylobilus |
| Chemoheterotrophs | E.coli, Bacillus, Streptococcus, Pseudomonas, |
| Nitrogen Fixation | N2 -> NH2 |
| Free living bacteria that NF: | Azotobacter |
| Cyanobacteria that NF: | Anabaeba, |
| Symbionts that NF: | Rhizobium |
| Growth Factors | made or transported, amino acids, purines and pyrimidines, vitamins |
| NAD is derived from | Niacin...... |
| FAD is derived from | Riboflavin-Vitamin B2 |
| Electron Carriers | NAD and NADP carry H- or hydride ions |
| Hydride Ions | 2 electrons an done proton |
| Transfer Mechanism-LARGE Molecules | Exozymes secreted by cell, also proteins like flagella |
| Transfer Mechanism-SMALL Molecules | Passive simple diffusion. facilitated diffusion, active transport via ABC, MFS, group translocation, siderophores. |
| ATP Theoretical Yield of Aerobic Metabolism | ~38ATP |
| 1 molecule of Glucose= | 2 molecules of pyruvate |
| Glycolysis Yield | 2NADH and 6ATP |
| Transition Step Yield | 2NADH and 6ATP |
| Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle Yield | 18ATP |
| Anaerobic Alternate Electron Acceptor | nitrate->NO3-,nitrite-> NO2-, sulfate or CO2 |
| Obligate Aerobes | REQUIRE oxygen to grow.-Pseudomonas. |
| Obligate Anaerobe | CANNOT grow in the presence of oxygen. |
| Facultative Anaerobe | Grow with or without oxygen. No preference. ie-Bacillus megaterium |
| Microaerophiles | Require small amounts of O2. 5-10% |
| Aerotolerant | Grow in the presence of O2 but don't use it. ie-Streptococcus. |
| Obligate Fermentators | Anaerobes |
| Under anaerobic conditions, E.coli prefers _______ or ________ as a terminal electron acceptor. | nitrate or nitrite |
| Fermentation | catabolic process using organic molecules as the electron acceptor |
| Why are saccharides so important in prokaryotic life? | cell wall-PG Energy source/storage-glucose.glycogen Cell components need sugars |
| Embden-Meyerhoff | glucose to pyruvate=glycolysis |
| Embden-Meyerhoff-Parnas | glycolysis starting at glucose-6-phosphate to pyruvate |
| Photosynthesis-Light Reaction | converts light to chemical energy, ATP, NADH |
| Photosynthesis-Dark Reaction | involves CO2 fixation- convert it to sugar through the Calvin Cycle |
| Cyclic Photophosphorylation | in one cycle the the electrons are collected and passed to create ATP. |
| Noncyclic Photophosphorylation | works with the two photosystems in tandem. uses the Z pathway. |
| Calvin-Benson-Bassham Cycle | converts CO2 to organic, requires 18ATP and 12 NADPH. RuBisCO fixes CO2. Involves pentose phosphate pathways enzymes |
| Carboxysomes | where the Calvin cycle occurs in cyanobacteria and archaeons. they transfer carbon dioxide and bicarbonate. |
| ATP or proton-motive force (PMF) | ○ H+ ejected from cell ○ OH- remain in cell ○ Creates electrochemical gradient ○ Controlled flow of H+ back into cell releases energy |
| ATP Binding Cassette | uses ATP to move against the gradient. ATP binds in the Walker motifs |
| Major Facilitator Superfamily | uses PMF, three types of porters |
| Symporters | 2 molecules in |
| Antiporter | 1 in, 1 out |
| Uniporter | 1 in |
| Siderophores | found in bacteria and fungi. small molecules that intake Fe |
| Group Translocation (Phototransferase System) | Chemical alteration of molecule during transport across membrane (usually add phosphate, get through phospholipid bilayer by piggybacking) ○ ○ No effect on concentration gradient ○ Sugars (glucose, fructose, arabinose, etc..) |
| TRANAMINATION | Make amino acids from carbon compound |
| GLUCONEOGENESIS | ○ Synthesize glucose from noncarbohydrates ○ Semi-reversal of Embden Meyerhof ○ Amphibolic pathways [both catabolic and anabolic |
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