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ch 21 bio 122
reproductive system
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| what are gametes | the sex cells |
| both the ovaries and the testes are controlled by what | a negative feedback loop involving the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland |
| what is a fertilized egg called | zygote |
| what is a gamete | when the egg and sperm are one |
| def of meiosis ; what are the meiosis | the process of reducing the sex cells -diploid cell to a haploid cell; meiosis 1 and meiosis 2 |
| what is the process of mitosis; what happens to the chromosomes in mitosis; how many times do the cells divide in mitosis; how many times do the cells divide in meiosis | prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase that produce 2 daughter cells identical to a mother cell; they replicate; once; twice |
| homologous chromosomes: made of 2 identical strands of what; what are these strands; what happens to the old and new chromatid during replication | chromatids; chromosomes; the old and new chromatids are connected by a centromere |
| meiosis: meiosis 1: what happens to the homologous pairs; what does homologous mean | they separate; they are basically identical chromosomes |
| meiosis: meiosis 1: how many phases; what are the phases of meiosis 1 in order; | 4; prophase 1, metaphase 1, anaphase 1, telophase 1; |
| meiosis: what is a haploid cell; what is a diploid; how many single chromosomes came from mom and how many from dad; what is the only cell in body that does not have 46 chromosomes | half of the pair of the chromosomes the sex cell; there are 23 pair or 46 chromosomes; 23 and 23; the sex cells |
| the events of meiosis are almost identical to what else | the events of mitosis |
| meiosis - meiosis 1: this separated what | the paired chromosomes on each side |
| meiosis: this type of cell division nessary for what; the outcome of meiosis is what | reproduction; 4 haploid cells; |
| meiosis - meiosis 1: prophase 1: during synapsis what lines up; when the chromosomes line up they undergo what; what is crossing over; what is the result of crossing over | the homologous chromosomes; crossing over; parts of the homologous pairs break apart and reconnect to the other homologue; a different combination than the original pair of chromosomes than inherited from mom and pop |
| meiosis - the end of meiosis produce what cell | a zygote |
| meiosis - meiosis 1: prophase: crossing over comes up with new what | chromosome combinations |
| meiosis - meiosis 1: metaphase 1: it is like what ; what happens in this phase | the metaphase of mitosis; the chromosomes line up on the equator of the cell and connect to spindle fibers |
| meiosis - meiosis 1: anaphase 1: what do the spindle fibers pull apart; what is the new cell called | the replicated chromosomes; a haploid |
| meiosis - meiosis 1: telophase: what happens here | the original cell now divides in 2 |
| meiosis 2: def; | the second division separates the chromotids resulting in an independent haploid chromatid |
| meiosis 2: what happens; is there another replication of chromosomes; what happens in anaphase 2; how many chromosomes are at the end of meiosis | it divides into 2 new cells; no; the replicated haploid chromatids separate and go to the opposite poles; 23 |
| male repro: what are the primary sex organ in the male; the testes develop from the same common tissue as what else; what does it mean that the testes and the adrenal gland comes from same tissue; testes secrete what | testes; the cortex of the adrenal gland; the hormones of testes are steroid or lipid based hormones; testosterone |
| scrotum: what does it house; how do the testes decend; why is it important that the testes are outside of the body | the testes outside the body; through the inguinal canal leading from the lower abdomen into the scrotum; b/c the body temp is too hot for sperm and if in body they will die |
| where are the sperm cells and male sex hormones formed | in the testes |
| testes: what happens to them a month or two before birth; what stimulates the testes to descend; what secretes testosterone; what aids in moving the testes | they descend to the lower abdominal cavity and pass through the abdominal wall into the scrotum; the male sex hormone testosterone; the testes; the gubernaculum |
| gubernaculum: def | a fibrous muscular cord that moves the testes along with the vas deferens, bvs, nerves, from inside the body to the scrotum |
| potential problems with the testes: def of cryptorchidism; what happens if cryptochidism is left untreated; def of inguinal hernia | failure of testes to descend; the cells that produces sperm will degenerate and the male is infertile; a weakened peritoneum of the inguinal site that allows the intestines to extend into this area |
| structure of the testes: what are the testes made from; def of tunica albuginea | spermatogenic cells and interstitial cells; a tough white fibrous connective capsule that encloses each testis in the scrotum; |
| structure of the testes: spermatogenic cells- what do they line; what do they produce | the seminiferous tubules; immature sperm; |
| structure of the testes: sustentacular cells- what do they line; what do they do | the seminferour tubules; they support and nourish the immature sperm |
| structure of the testes: the seminiferous tubules join to form what; the rete testis join to form what; the epididymis is coiled ____ and is connected to _______ | rete testis; epididymis; testis; vas deferens |
| structure of the testes: interstitial cells- where is this tissue located; they are under the stimulation of what; the ICSH is produced where; the interstitial cells produce what hormone | between the seminiferous tubules; interstitial cell stimulating hormone or ICSH; anterior lobe of the pituitary gland; testosterone |
| spermatogenic cells: they give rise to what; sperm cells are aka; what is an undifferentiated one called; what is spermproduction called | sperm cells; spermatozoa; spermatogonia; spermatogenesis; |
| spermatogonia: what stimulates them to become active; when does meiosis begin | hormones; at puberty |
| meiosis: what are the two successful divisions called; what happens in the 1st meiotic division; what happens before meosis one | 1st meiotic division and 2nd meiotic division; the homologous chromosome pairs are separated; each homologous chromosome is replicated so it consists of two complete DNA strands; |
| meiosis: what is a complete DNA strand called; the chromatid of a replicated chromosome attaches to what; when meiosis takes place the number of chromosomes goes from ___ to ___; it also goes from diploid to ____ | chromatid; centromeres; 46 to 23; haploid; |
| during fertilization a haploid sperm fertalizes a ___ egg; fertilization restores what | haploid; the chromosome number to 46 (23 pairs) |
| meiosis: this generates astounding genetic what; why so much variety | variety; there are more than 8 million combos with the 23 chromosomes |
| what is the largest cell of the male | the sperm |
| structure of the sperm: what contains to the DNA; what are the 3 parts of the sperm; is there cytoplasm in the head; what is the acrosome; what is hyaluronidase; | the head; head, midpiece and tail; no; the "cap" on the head contains hyaluronidase; an enzyme that helps sperm penetrate the egg |
| how much sperm does a healthy male produce | 400 million a day |
| structure of the sperm: what is capacitation; what is the midpiece also called; the midpiece contains what; Mitochondria produces what; ATP helps sperm how; what does the tail do | when sperm penetrates the egg; the body or the neck; midocondria; ATP; energy for the sperm to swim; whip back and forth allowing the sperm to swim. |
| sperm motility is poor if the pH is less than what; what is vagina pH | 6; 4.5 |
| what are the male internal accessory organs | two epididumides, two ductus deferons; two ejaculatory ducts; urethra, prostate gland. two bulbourethral gland |
| epididymides: how many; location; what matures here; the cells that line the epididumis secrete what; how long does sperm live in the epididymis; are immature cells that reach the epididymis motile | 2; coil of tubes outside of the testes; the immature sperm; glycogen and other substances that enhance maturation; several months; no |
| ductus deferons: aka; they connect from what; they connect to what; what is a vasectomy | vas deferons spermatic cord; the epididymis; urethra; when the "cord" is cut and tied off in the scrotum |
| epididymides: what happens to the sperm as they travel through the epididymis; what makes the sperm mature; sperm goes to where after this | they mature; the rhythmic peristaltic contractions; the ductus deferons |
| ductus deferons: what is the anlarged area called; the ammpulla connects to what; it becomes slender after the ampulla and unites with what; the uniting of this and the seminal vesicle form what | the ampulla; the ejaculatory duct; serminal vesicle; the ejaculatory duct |
| seminal vesicles: what type of fluid due that secrete; attaches to what; the fluid regulates what; what does fructose do; | an alkaline fluid with fructose, ascorbic acid, prostaglandins; the ductus deferons; pH of tubular content as sperm travels; energy to sperm; |
| seminal vesicles: what does prostaglandins do; the muscular contractions aid in what; the seminal fluid makes up what % of the semen; they also produce fibrinogen and postate gland helps convert this to fibrin, what is the purpose for this | the stimulate muscular contractions with in the female repro organs; the movement of sperm toward the egg cell; 60%; sticky and helps the sperm adhere to the inside of the vagina |
| seminal vesicles: what happens to the fibrin after 15 minutes; | fibrinolsin an enzyme dissolves the fibrin and releases the sperm they take off |
| prostate gland: surrounds what; what is the shape; ducts from the prostate enter where; it secretes what; what does this fluid do; when are the sperm sluggish; | the proximal part of the urethra; chestnut shape; the urethra; a thin milky alkaline fluid that; activate the sperm b/c of the now alkaline environment; in an acidic environment; |
| prostate gland: why does the fluid containing sperm cells become acidic; this fluid also helps neutralize what | b/c of the metabollic waste from the sperm cells; the acidic secretion of the vagina |
| bulbourethral glands: aka; secretes what; when is the fluid secreted; the fluid does what; is the fluid alkaline of acidic; the alkalinity does what; what encloses it | cowper's gland; a mucous like secretion; in response to sexual stimulation; lubricates the end of the penis; alkaline; neutralizes the acidic urethra; muscle fibers of of external urethra sphincter |
| semen: def; what is the pH; when does the sperm begin to swim; who long does sperm survive after being expelled | the fluid the urethra conveys the the outside during ejaculation- the sperm along with the the accessory fluid; 7.2-7.6; when it is combined with the secretions of the accessory glands; about 3 days; |
| what are the male external organs | scrotum, and penis and irethra that passes through the penis |
| scrotum: def; the scrotum has the ability to move what; why does the scrotum move the testes; exposure to cold does what; temp should be ___ degree less then body temp | a pouch like skin and subq tissue outside the body; the testes closer and further away from the body; in order to keep sperm at right temp and keep them living; stimulates the scrotum to contract and move testes to pelvis; 3-5 |
| penis: what does it do; what is shared by both the urinary and reproductive system; what is the body aka; what are the 3 columns of erectile tissue called; | move urine and semen outside of the body; the shaft; paired corpora cavernosa and a single ventral corpus spongiosum; |
| erection: what is it; blood from the arteries fill what; when the blood fills these areas this puts pressure where; | an enlargment of the penis ain response to sexual stimulation; the space of the corpus cavernosum; on the veins of the penis resulting in blood being unable to flow out |
| what is emission; when does emission occur | movement of the sperm cells and the secretion of the accessory glands into the urethra; this occurs in response to sympathetic nerve impulses from the spinal |
| ejaculation: what contracts; what happens after the ajaculation | skeletal muscles at the base of the penis contact and force the semen out of the urethra; the SNS sends impulse to constrict the arteries allowing the blood to flow out of the veins |
| male hormones: what are they collectively referred as; what is there function | androgens; to produce sperm and develop and maintain secondary sex chacteristics |
| male hormones: what controls male hormones production; where is the hypothalamus located; the hypothalamus controls many changes during what; | the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary gland, testes; diencephalon of the brain; puberty; |
| hypothalamus: it secretes what hormone;what does gonadotropin releasing hormone do; what 2 hormones do the anterior pituitary secrete; | gonadotrpoin releasing hormone; stimulates the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland to secrete 2 hormones; luteinizing hormone (LH) or interstitial cell stimulationg hotmose (ICSH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) |
| hypothalamus: LH is for males or females; ICSH is for males or females; | females; males |
| ICSH: this hormone stimulates what; it causes the testes to produce | the testes; testosterone |
| FSH: this hormone matures what; where are what stimulates the production of sperm; the sustentacular cells; testosterone comes from what; | FSH and testosterone; the sustentacular cells and testosterone; seminiferous tubules; interstitial cells |
| what cells secrete the hormone inhibin; what does inhibin do; the inhibin prevents over secretion of what | the sustentacular cells; it inhibits the anterior pituitory gland by negative feedback; FSH |
| anabolic steroids: used for what;why is it illegal; | increase cells and muscle growth in athlete; b/c it can result in liver disorders, vascular problems, feminizing charachteristics and psycho probs |
| what is the phase in development when an individual becomes reproductively functional | puberty |
| actions: of testosterone: what does it combinedto; what is it converted to befroe it becoems active; when is testosterone 1st secreted; when does testoterone stop; why is it secreted after birth | protein receptor cells in the nucleus of target cells; dyhydrotestosterone; during fetal development and a few weeks after birthl; few weeks acfter birth- 13yo; the fetus has to control the development of the male repro organs to ensure the testes descend |
| secondary male sex characteristics: what happens to the larynx; what does increased growth hormone secretion do; what happens to the skin; how is libido awakened; why are they hungery; | it enlarges and thickens the vocal cords resulting in a lower voice; results in more growth spurts;it thickens; estrogen is converted into testosterone; more cellualar metabolism; |
| regulation of male sex hormones: how does the hypothalamus regulate testosterone output; what happens in the hypothalamus and the concentration of testosterone in blood increases; when the hypothalamus is inhibited this decreases stimulation where; | through negative feedback; the hypothalamus becomes inhibited; the anterior pituitary; |
| regulation of male sex hormones: less stimulation of the anterior pituitary gland means less secretion of what;when LH levels fall what happens to the amount of testosterone in the bloof | LH; it also falls |
| fm repro system: this system specializes in what; what are the primary sex organs of the fm; where are the avaries located | producing and maintaining the egg, transporting the egg for site of fertilization, place for offspring to develop, move offspring to outside and produce sex hormones; ovaries; shallow depressions on each side in the lateral wall of the pelvic cavity |
| ovaries: where do they develop from; where do they descend; where do they attach; when do they descend; what holds the upper end; what holds the ovary to the uterus; | a tissue mass near the adrenal glands; to the lower part of hte pelvis; the lateral wall of the pelvis;during development; suspesory ligament; the ovarian ligament; |
| ovaries: the outside is called what; the inside is called what; the cortex contains what | cortex; medulla; ovarian follicles |
| primoridial follicles: when are they formed; each follicle contains what; what type of cell is a follicular cell; the follicular cells suround what; | during prenatal development; a primary oocyte and follicular cells; epithelial; the primary oocyte; |
| primoridial follicles: meiosis stops until when; are new primoridial follicles made; the millions of primordial follicles do what until puberty; how many remain at start of puberty; how many are released during reproductive life of women | puberty; no; degenerate; 4000; 400-500 |
| oogenesis: what is a possible reason for increased genetic defects in children of older mothers; def ; how is it diff then spermatogenesis; | that eggs have been in women for decades; the process of egg cell formation; the 1st division is different; |
| oogenesis: what happens during first division; what is the cell with all the cytoplasm called; what is the cell without cytoplasm called; what is larger the 1st oocyte or the polar body | all the cytoplasm goes into the one cell and none to the other one; secondary oocyte; polar body; 1st oocyte |
| oogenesis: why is the polar body important; what is the future ovum; what can be fertalized by the sperm; what is a fertilized egg cell called; what is the stage of development where all rudimetns of organs form | this is food for the eeg before it implants and a placenta is formed; the secondary oocyte; the ovum; zygote; the embryo |
| why is the polor body not a waste | becasue is can help the zygote through the first few cell divisions |
| how is oogenisis different from spermatogensis | only one ovum is produced where when the spermatogonia devides it produces 4 viable sperm |
| follicle maturation: what does FSH stand for; what does FSH do; what forms around the oocyte as it enlarges: what is the name for the glycoprotein coat; what is the fluid filled cavity around the oocyte called; | follicle stimulating hormone; matures follicles; a glycoprotein coat; zona pellucida; the antrum; |
| follicle maturation: the oocyte bulges toward the ovary like what; def of corona radiate; where does the corona radiata attach and when; what is a mature oocyte called | a blister; a mantle of follicular cells; to the zona pellucidum when the cell matures; graafian follicle |
| follicle maturation: what secretes more FSH at puberity; what happens is FM body with increased FSH; how long does maturation of follicles take; whatis the purpose of the corona radiata; how many follicles can mature at one time | the anterior pituitary; the ovaries enlarge and the primordial follicles mature; 10-14 days; processes from the cells here extend through the zona pellucida and supply nutrients to the oocyte; 12 |
| oogenisis: the second meiotic division does not occur in egg cell unless what happens | if the egg cell is not fertilized; |
| ovulation: what does LH stand for; where is LH produced; what does LH do; what picks up and pulls egg into the oviduct; what happens if the ovum is not fertilized within hours | lutieinizing hormone; anterior pituitary gland; stimulated the follicular wall to rupture and releases the egg out of the ovary; fimbriae; it will degenerate |
| ovulation: def of it; | the process of releasing the egg from the follicle; |
| female internal accesory organs: name them ; where does fertilization happen | uterine tubes, uterus, vagina; in uterine tube |
| female internal accesory organs: uterine tubes- is it directly connected to the ovary; what is the shape; what are the finger like projections called; what is purpose of fimbriae; what types of cells is inside layer made up of; what does the cilia so | no just suspended by the broad ligament between the two; a funnel shape with finger like projections; finbriae; help direct egg into the uterine tube;simple columnar epithelium that is ciliated; helps pull egg into the tube |
| female internal accesory organs: uterine tubes: what do the peristaltic contractions of uterine tube do; what are the 3 layers of the tube; | help move egg down the tube; inner mucosal layer, middle muscular layer, and outer covering of peritoneum; |
| female internal accesory organs: uterus- what does is receive; shape; broad ligament- where does it attach; what is inside the broad ligament; where does broad ligament attach; | the embryo that develops from egg cells; hollow muscular and pear shaped; the ovaries to uterine tube but is long and creates a drape; the round ligament; connects upper end of uterus to anterior pelvic wall; |
| female internal accesory organs: uterus- size in non pregnant adults; name for the upper 2/3; whatis the name for the top of the body; what is the lower 1/3 of it called; the cervix extends into what; what is the cervical orifice; | 7 cm long; medially within anterior portion of the pelvic cavity over bladder; body; fundus; the cervix or neck; the upper portion of the vagina;opening through which uterus connects to vagina |
| female internal accesory organs: uterus- what are the 3 layers of the wall; what is endometrium made of; what is myometrium made of; what is perimetrium made of | the endometrium, myometrium, permetrium; glandular mucosal made of columnar epithelium; thick smooth muscle fibers; serosal layer covers body and part of cervix |
| female internal accesory organs:vagina- def;aka;partially covered by__; what is hymen made of;what are the ridges of it called;is it shared with urinary system; posterior to __;what are the recesses between the cervix & vagina;why are fornices important | muscular tube that connects the uterus to outside; birth canal; the hymen; membrane of CT and stratidied squamous epithelium; vaginal rugae; no; urethra and urinary bladder; fornices; allows Dr. to palpate the internal abdominal organs in exam; |
| female external repro organs: what makes of the vulva | the labia minora and majora, clitoris, vestibular glands |
| female external repro organs:labia majora- enclose and protect what; similar to what in male; at anterior end they merge to form what; at posterior end they merge to form what; | the external reproductive organs; scrotum; mons pubis; perinium; |
| female external repro organs: labia minora: located where; why are they pink; they merge with what posteriorly | folds between the majora; they are richly suppiled with BV;the labia majora; |
| female external repro organs: clitoris- located where; what type of tissue; sexual stimulation does what; highly innervated with what; similar structere to what in male | the anterior end of the vulva between the labia minora; erectile tissue with corpora cavernosa like male; fills tissue with bloods; sensory nerves; penis |
| female external repro organs: vestibule- located where; what is there for lubrications; vestibular glands are similar to what glands in male; | enclosed between the labia minora;pair of vestibular glands; bulbourethral glands; |
| hormones with FM repro: what secretes hormones in FM; | hypothalamus, anterior pituitary and ovareis; |
| hormones with FM repro: a female body is reproductively immature until when; what secretes GnRH;GnRH stimulates what; FHS and LH play a role in controlling what; what secretes estrogen and progesterone; what cells of follicle produce & secrete estrogen | 10 years of age; the hypothalamus; the anterior pituitary gland to release gonadotropins FSH and LH; female sex cell maturation and in producing sex hormones progesterone and estrogen; ovaries, adrenal cortices and placenta; the granulosa cells |
| what protects and sustains tge embryo during pregnancy | the uterus |
| hormones with FM repro: where is the primary source of estrogen in a nonpregnant women; some estrogens are synthesized where; what happens with estrogen at puberty; estrogen stimulates the enlargement of what; estrogen stimulates what to thicken; | the ovaries; in the adrenal androgens; the anterior pituitary gland causes ovaries to secrete increasing amounts of estrogen; accesory organs; the endometrial wall to thicken |
| hormones with FM repro: estrogen causes the development of what; increases the deposition of what tissue; increases what in the skin; where is the primary source of progesterone in nonpregnant females; | breasts; adipose tissue; vascularization; ovaries; |
| hormones with FM repro: what is responsible for the for the changes that occur in the unterus during uvulation; what are androgens; what do angdrogens in FMs do during pubertiy; | progesterone; male sex hormones; increase of hair growth in axillary and pubic region, fm skeletal formation from low concentrations |
| female reproductive cycle: def; what is the name for menstrual bleeding; what is menarche; when does menarch occur; what stimulates the ovary to mature a follicle; FSH stimulates the ovary to produce what hormone; What does LH do; | characterized by regular, recurring changes in the endometrium which cumulate in menstrual bleeding; mensus; a FM 1st reproductive cycle; after the ovaries and other organs of the female repro system mature; FSH; estrogen; stimulates the ovary indirectly |
| female reproductive cycle: estrogen secreted during every cycle maintains what; what does estrogen do to the uterine lining; what is the thickening of the uterine lining called; estrogen inhibits the release of what; when does LH spike; | secondary sex characteristics; it thickens it & repairs it for pregnancy;the proliferation phase; LH; during ovulation |
| female reproductive cycle: what day does the follicle appear on the surface of hte ovary; although LH is inhibited it is stored where; what day is LH released; what does LH do to the bulging follicle; | 14th; in the anterior pituitary gland; 14th; LH surges for 36 hours and ruptures the follicle |
| female reproductive cycle: what happens to the follicle after it ruptures; what makes the changes occur in the follicle after the rupture; what does the follicle change into; corpus luteum means what; what does the corpus luteum secrete; | the follicules fluid fills with blood which will clot; LH; a corpus luteum; yellow mass; progesterone |
| female reproductive cycle: when in cycle does corpus luteum secrete progesterone; what does progesterone do to the endometrium; what happens to the corpus luteum if the egg is not fertilized; what does the corpus luteum remain as in the ovary | in 2nd holf; cause it to become more vascular and glandular; it breaks down on 24th day; corpus albucan a CT scar; |
| female reproductive cycle: progesterone stimulate the uterime glands to secrete what; more glycogen and lipids mean what; | more glycogen and lipds; tissures will fill with fluids containing nutrients and electrolytes a favorable environment for embryo development; |
| female reproductive cycle: high levels of estrogen and progesterone inhibit the release of what; no stimulation of LH and FSH means what; when does the corpus luteum degenerate; what happens with levels of progesterone and estrogen when corpus luteum deg | LH and FSH; no other follicles are stimulated to develop when the corpus luteum is active; if the secondary oocyte is not fertilized; the levels drop rapidly; |
| female reproductive cycle: decline in progesterone and estrogen cause what to contrist in endometrium; what happens to endometrial lining when BVs constrict; blood leaving these capillaries cause what | BV; reduction of o2 and nutrients to thickened endometrium and tissue slough off; a flow of blood passing through vagina creating menstrual flow; |
| female reproductive cycle: when does menstrual flow begin; during flow concentrations of what are low; begining of menstrual flow marks end of what; low concentrations of estrogen and progesterone mean what; | 28th day; estrogen; reproductive cycle; that the anterior pituitary gland is no longer inhibited |
| female reproductive cycle: when anterior pituitary gland is not inhibited what is increased; what secretes inhibin; what does inhibin do; | LH and FSH; corpus luteum; inhibits the secretion of FSH |
| menopause: def; what is cause; with this what hormone levels drop; drops in estrogen and progesterone cause what; what are vasomotor signs; | in late forties early fifties when mensus is irregular with in a few years cycles ceases all together; aging of the ovaries; estrogen and progesterone; changes in female secondary sex charecteristics; hot flashes |
| mammary glands: what do they specialize in after pregnancy; breasts consist of what type of glands; these glands connect to what; alveolar ducts connect to what; lactiferous ducts open to what; | milk secretion; 15-20 alveolar glands to produce milk; alveolar ducts; lactiferous ducts; the nipple; |
| mammary glands: alveolar glands are separated by what; the dense CT and adipose tissue support what; what happens to the breasts at puberty; | dense CT and adipose tissue; the breasts and attach them to the pectoralis major muscle; the ovaries stimulate them to develop |
| mammary glands: the mammary glands of male and females before puberty are similar or different; | similar; |
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