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anemias II
anemias phase II
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| plasma | liquid portion of the blood and lymph containing water, proteins, salts, nutrients, hormones, vitamins, and cellular components (leukocytes, erythrocytes, and platelets) |
| serum | liquid portion of the blood left after the clotting process |
| erythrocyte | red blood cell that transports oxygen and carbon dioxide within the bloodstream |
| neutrophil | a granular leukocyte, named for the neutral stain of its granules, that fights infection by swallowing bacteria (phagocytosis) (neuro = neither; phil = attraction for) |
| eosinophil | a granular leukocyte, named for the rose-color stain of its granules, that increases with allergy and some infections [eos = dawn-colored (rosy); phil = attraction for] |
| lymphocyte | an agranulocytic leukocyte that is active in the process of immunity--there are four categories of lymphocytes: T cells (thymus dependent); B cells (bone marrow derived); NK cells (natural killer); K-type cells |
| platelets | thrombocytes; cell fragments in the blood essential for blood clotting (coagulation) |
| lymph | fluid originating in the organs and tissues of the body that is circulated through the lymph vessels |
| lymph nodes | many small oval structures that filter the lymph received from the lymph vessels-major locations include the cervical region, axillary region,and inguinal region |
| antigen | a substance that, when introduced into the body, causes the formation of antibodies against it |
| antibody | a substance produced by the body that destroys or inactivates an antigen that has entered the body |
| immunity | process of disease protection induced by exposure to an antigen |
| microcytosis | the presence of small red blood cells |
| anisocytosis | the presence of red blood cells of unequal size (an = without; iso = equal) |
| poikilocytosis | the presence of large, irregularly shaped red blood cells (poikil/o = irregular) |
| reticulocytosis | an increase of immature erythrocytes in the blood |
| erythropenia | an abnormally reduced number of red blood cells |
| lymphocytopenia | an abnormally reduced number of lymphocytes |
| neutropenia | a decrease in the number of neutrophils |
| pancytopenia | an abnormally reduced number of all cellular components in the blood |
| hemolysis | breakdown of the red blood cell membrane |
| immunocompromised | impaired immunological defenses caused by an immunodeficiency disorder or therapy with immunosuppressive agents |
| immunosuppression | impaired ability to provide an immune response |
| lymphadenopathy | the presence of enlarged (diseased) lymph nodes |
| splenomegaly | enlargement of the spleen |
| Rh factor | the presence, or lack, of antigens on the surface of red blood cells that may cause a reaction between the blood of the mother and fetus, resulting in fetal anemia. Rh positive: the presence of antigens; Rh negative: the absence of antigens |
| hemophilia | a group of hereditary bleeding disorders in which there is a defect in clotting factors necessary for the coagulation of blood |
| leukemia | a chronic or acute malignant (cancerous) disease of the blood-forming organs, marked by abnormal leukocytes in the blood and bone marrow; classified according to the types of white cells affected (e.g., myelocytic, lymphocytic) |
| lymphoma | any neoplastic disorder of lymph tissue, usually malignant, as in Hodgkin disease |
| metastasis | the process by which cancer cells are spread by blood or lymph circulation to distant organs |
| mononucleosis | a condition caused by the Epstein-Barr virus characterized by an increase in mononuclear cells (monocytes and lymphocytes) in the blood, along with enlarged lymph nodes (lymphadenopathy), fatigue, and sore throat (pharyngitis) |
| thrombocytopenia | a bleeding disorder characterized by an abnormal decrease in the number of platelets in the blood, which impairs the clotting process |
| blood chemistry panel | specialized batteries of automated blood chemistry tests performed on a single sample of blood; used as a general screen for disease or to target specific organs or conditions (e.g., metabolic panel, lipid panel, arthritis panel) |
| blood culture | a test to determine if infection is present in the bloodstream by isolating a specimen of blood in an environment that encourages the growth of microorganisms; the specimen is observed and the organisms that grow in the culture are identified |
| complete blood count | the most common laboratory blood test performed as a screen of general health or for diagnostic purposes; |
| white blood count | a count of the number of white blood cells per cubic millimeter obtained by manual or automated laboratory methods |
| red blood count | a count of the number of red blood cells per cubic millimeter obtained by manual or automated laboratory methods |
| hemoglobin | a test to determine the blood level of hemoglobin (expressed in grams) |
| hematocrit | a measurement of the percentage of packed red blood cells in a given volume of blood |
| types of anemias | aplastic, iron, deficiency, pernicious, sickle cell, hypovolemic |
| Anemia | -Reduced Oxygen carrying capacity of the blood that results in Hypoxia Reduced number of RBC -> reduction in consistency and volume of blood |
| Hypoxia of Anemia | Leads to cardiovascular dysfunction |
| Hypoxia of Anemia | Dilation of arterioles, venules and capillaries, increases blood flowIncreased blood flow-> increased heart rate and stroke volume Then can lead to heart failure |
| Symptoms of Anemia | Fatigue Weakness Dyspnea Pallor |
| Pernicious Anemia | caused by lack of intrinsic factor VIII from gastric parietal cells Also caused by heavy alcohol consumption |
| Symptoms of Pernicious Anemia | Neurological deficits: Paresthesias of feet and fingers Loss of appetite Abdominal Pain BEEFY RED TONGUE Splenic/hepatic enlargmen |
| Tx of Pernicious Anemia | Vitamin B12 injections |
| Folate Deficiency Anemia | seen in alcoholics, and those who are malnourished do to fad diets and diets in low vegetables |
| Symptoms of Folate Deficiency Anemia | Loss of appetite, Abdominal Pain, Beefy Red Tongue,Splenic/hepatic enlargement,Cheilosis |
| Tx of Folate Deficiency Anemia | daily oral administration of Folate |
| Causes of Iron Deficiency Anemia | Inadequate dietary intake Poverty, women of childbearing age, children Continuous blood loss |
| Causes of Iron Deficiency Anemia | Excessive iron loss Chronic bleeding of GI or genitourinary tract: |
| Symptoms of Iron Deficiency Anemia | Brittle, thin, spoon shaped nails,Red,sore,painful tongue |
| Tx of Iron Deficiency Anemia | Iron replacement therapy after trying to rule causes/source of blood loss |
| Aplastic Anemia | depression of bone marrow in production of RBC |
| Causes of Aplastic Anemia | Idiopathic, viral infections Medications (ex. chemotherapeutic agents),Radiation Therapy,(autoimmune) |
| Symptoms of Aplastic Anemia | Weakness, fatigue, general malaise Fever w/repeated Infections, |
| Tx of Aplastic Anemia | Blood transfusion and bone marrow transplant |
| Aplastic Anemia Causes | Bleeding problems (petechiae, ecchymoses, Nose/GI/GU bleeding)Patients are usually pancytopenic(low RBCs, platelets and WBCs). |
| pancytopenic | (low RBCs, platelets and WBCs). |
| Aplastic Anemia Subjective: | History of exposure to chemicals, Level of fatigue experienced while completing ADLs. |
| Aplastic Anemia Objective: | 1) Pallor;2) Signs of infection;3) Bleeding;4) Dyspnea;5) Tachycardia |
| Aplastic Anemia Diagnostic tests: : | Bone marrow biopsy (low cell content with increased fatty marrow is called a "dry tap") |
| Aplastic Anemia Bone marrow biopsy Diagnostic tests | 1)Hypoplastic or aplastic fatty deposits;2) Decrease in cellular elements;3)Depressed hematopoietic activity.(b) Peripheral blood smears—may not show RBC irregularities |
| Aplastic Anemia Medical management | Identify cause and remove;(b) Blood transfusions are avoided, if possible(c)Splenectomy may be required if that is the cause of thrombocytopenia.(d) Drug therapy. (e) Bone marrow transplant |
| Aplastic Anemia Medical management | 1) Steroids and androgens to stimulate bone marrow; 2)Antithymocyte globulin:3 (GM-CSF); |
| Aplastic Anemia Antithymocyte globulin: | a) To stimulate bone marrow;b) Used for patients who are not candidates for bone marrow transplant. |
| Granulocytic—macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF); | Used to control the cause of aplastic anemia. |
| Aplastic Anemia Nursing interventions | (a) Proper observation and care after bone marrow study.(b) Monitor/prevent infections. (c) Use protective devices, such as egg crate mattress.(d Monitor/ prevent bleeding.(e)Prevent fatigue |
| thrombocytopenia | observe carefully for any signs of bleeding; |
| Why are blood transfusions avoided in patients with aplastic anemia? | Prevention of iron overloading; Prevention of antibody development for transplant candidates;Platelet transfusion,as needed—must be HLA typed. |
| What is the average amount of blood in the body (in Liters) | 5 - 6 L |
| What is the normal pH of the blood? | 7.35-7.45 |
| What are the two parts of the blood? | 1. Plasma 2. Formed Elements |
| What is the fluid portion of blood? | Plasma |
| What is the cell portion of blood? | Formed elements |
| Name 7 Solutes in plasma: | 1. Glucose 2. Bicarbonate 3. Na+ 4. K+ 5. Urea 6. Amino Acids 7. Lipoproteins |
| Name the three plasma proteins: | 1. Albumin 2. Globulin 3. Fibrinogen |
| What is the significance of albumin? | It maintains the osmotic pressure of the blood. |
| What is meat by osmotic pressure? | The amount of pressure needed to stop the flow of water through the blood vessel wall. |
| How many erythrocytes are there per cubic millimeter? | 4-6 million RBC/mm3 |
| How long do RBC live? | 120 days |
| What is the size of a RBC? | 7-8um |
| Why do RBC only live a few months? | When they age they lose flexibility and no longer can squeeze through tight junctions |
| Where are RBCs destroyed? | In the liver and spleen |
| Name a few unique Characteristics of a RBC: | 1. Lack a nucleus & most organelles (no mitochondria) 2. Biconcave shape 3. Appear like doughnuts (more cytoplasm on the outer edge than in the middle)4. Can't reproduce |
| How do RBCs get ATP? | Glycolysis (make 2 ATP) |
| Name two functions of RBCs: | 1. Carry oxygen (Oxyhemoglobin)2. Carry carbon dioxide (Carbaminoglobin) |
| What is erythropoiesis? | The formation of RBCs |
| What is hematopoiesis? | The formation of various blood cells (RBCs, WBCs, Platelets) |
| What is a hematopoietic stem cell? | A pluripotent stem cell that undergoes mitosis and can differentiate into the different types of blood cells depending upon what factors act on it. |
| Where does erythropoiesis occur in adults? | The red bone marrow at the epiphyses of long bones and the spongy bone of flat bones. |
| Where does erythropoiesis occur in the fetus? | The liver, spleen, and thymus. |
| What vitamins/minerals are needed for erythropoeisis? | Intrinsic factor made by parietal cells is needed to absorb vitamin B12 which is crucial in the formation of RBCs. |
| How is the kidney involved in erythropoiesis? | The hormone erythropoietin is made by the kidneys to when oxygen levels are low in order to produce RBCs. |
| When is eryhropoietin produced? | When oxygen levels in the blood are low. |
| What is hypoxia? | Too little oxygen present in the body/tissues. |
| What is a hematocrit? | The percentage of RBCs in whole blood. |
| What is a normal hematocrit? | 38-55% (RBCs) |
| What is the normal amount of hemoglobin? | 12-18g/dl |
| How many hemoglobin are in one RBC? | 280 million |
| What is the function of hemoglobin? | Carry oxygen |
| What is oxyhemoglobin? | Hemoglobin with oxygen attached (bright red in color). |
| What mineral is in heme? | Iron |
| How many oxygen can hemoglobin bind to? | 4 |
| What is the globin part of hemoglobin made of? | Alpha, beta, and gamma globulins, transport proteins, and antibodies |
| What can globin bind to? | Carbon dioxide |
| When hemoglobin is broken down, what happens to heme, iron, and globin? | Heme = is used by the liver to form bilirubin that leaves with bile,Iron = is stored in the liver and recycled,Globin = is broken down into amino acids and recycled |
| What is jaundice? Does it always mean a liver or bile duct problem? | Jaundice is the yellowing of they eyes and the skin. It is caused by excess of bilirubin and can indicate over-stimulation of hemolysis (hemolytic anemia). |
| What color is deoxyhemoglobin? | Blue |
| What is cyanosis? | The bluish discoloration of the skin and mucous membranes due to lack of oxygen in the blood. |
| Name five causes of anemia: | 1.Hemorrhagic Anemia = bleeding,2.Hemolytic Anemia = Splitting of RBCs due to faultiness,3.Pernicous Anemia = lack of vitamin B12,4.Sickle Cell Anemia = faulty hemoglobin,5.Iron deficiency = iron loss/menstruation |
| What is polycythemia? | Too many rood blood cells |
| Why is polycythemia dangerous? | The high amount of red blood cells will cause the viscosity of the blood to be become too thick and to great for the heart to pump. |
| What is a reticulocyte, and when do they appear in the blood? | An immature RBC (the last stage before becoming a RBC). They appear in the blood during erythropoiesis. |
| How many leukocytes are there in a cubic millimeter of blood? | 5,000 - 10,000/mm3 |
| Where are white blood cells made? | In the red bone marrow |
| What is leukocytosis? | Too many WBCs |
| What is leukocytopenia? | Too few WBCs |
| What is the major histocompatability complex (MHC)? | It is a complex that helps body cells recognize each other as "self" |
| Why is the major histocompatiability complex significant? | It helps cells with self-recognition which is important for tissue typing. It allows the cells to differentiate from foreign or abnormal cells. |
| Name all five white blood cells: | 1.Neutrophils. 2.Lymphocytes. 3.Monocytes. 4.Eosinophils. 5.Basophil |
| What white blood cells are agranular? | Lymphoytes & Monocytes |
| Which white blood cells are grnaular? | Neutrophils,Eosinophils,Basophils |
| What is diapedesis? Which cells can perform it? | It is the movement of a white blood cell through an intact blood vessel wall. |
| What is chemotaxis? | Chemicals that attract white blood cells to a particular area of damage. |
| What is the percentage of neutrophils in a WBC differential? | 50-70% |
| What is the typical appearance of a neutrophil? | Segmented nucleus (PMNs = polymorphonucleocytes) |
| What is the function of a neutrophil? | phagocytize bacteria |
| When does the increase of neutrophils occur? | During a bacterial infection |
| What are the three granules in a neutrophil? | Lysozyme,Defensin,Oxidants |
| What is the percentage of eosinophils in a WBC differential? | 2-5% |
| What do eosinophils look like? | Have reddish orange granules,Bilobed nucleus |
| What is the function of eosinophils? | Destroy parasites,Phagocytize antigen-antibody complexes |
| What granules do eosinophils have? | Enzymes that destroy parasites (worms) |
| When is the | of eosinophils elevated? |
| What is the percentage of basophils in a WBC differential? | 0-1% |
| What is the function of basophils? | Mediates inflammation in the tissues |
| What granules do basophils contain? | Histamine (for vasodilation, inflammation, swelling),Heparin (anti-clotting agent |
| Mast cells and basophils have similarities and differences, list them. | -Basophils are granular WBCs that circulate throughout the blood. |
| Mast cells and basophils have similarities and differences, list them. | -Mast cells are located in areolar connective tissue cells |
| Mast cells and basophils have similarities and differences, list them. | -Both contain granules rich in histamine and heparin |
| What do basophils look like? | They have an s-shaped nucleus with dark blue-purple granules |
| What is the percentage of lymphocytes in a WBC differential? | 20-40% |
| Where are lymphocytes made? | In the red bone marrow |
| What does a lymphocyte look like? | The nucleus takes up almost the entire cell |
| What are the three types of lymphocytes? List their functions | 1. T-cells = cell-mediated immunity,2. B-cells = Make antibodies (humoral),3. NK cells = survey body cells and destroy abnormal cell |
| What is the percentage of monocytes in a WBC differential? | 3-8% |
| What is the size of a monocyte? | 3X that of a RBC (18-24um) |
| What does a monocyte look like? | 3X the size of a RBC,Horseshoe shaped nucleus |
| What is the function of a monocyte? | Phagocytic, become macrophages during diapediesis |
| What are macrophages? | They are big eaters that engulf debris, foreign materials, bacteria, and viruses. |
| Name 5 places you can find fixed macrophages: | 1. Kupffer cells in the liver,2. Microglia in the brain,3. Langerhan cells in the skin,4. Osteoclasts in bone,5. Alveolar macrophages in the lungs |
| How many thrombocytes are there per cubic millimeter? | 200,000-400,000/mm3 |
| What is another name for thrmobocytes? | Platelets |
| Platelets come from which large cell? | Megakaryocytes (in the bone marrow) |
| What is the life span of a platelet? | 8-10 days |
| What is the function of platelets? | 1. Release chemicals (serotonin, ADP, thromboxane),2. Adhesion,3. Forms a temporary plug |
| Name 3 important granules in thrombocytes: | 1. ADP (aggregation & degranulation),2. Thromboxane (A2) (prostaglandin for aggregation and sticking),3. Serotonin (vasoconstriction/vascular spasms |
| What are the three steps to stop bleeding? | 1. Adherence,2. Release of chemicals (ADP, serotonin, thromboxane),3. Aggregation (formation of temporary plug |
| What is serum? | Plasma without clotting proteins |
| What is a thrombus? | A stationary blood clot in an unbroken blood vessel |
| What is an embolus? | Moving blood clot |
| What is the cause of hemopholia? | Lackig a clotting factor, most commonly FVIII |
| Why is vitamin K important regarding hemostasis? | Needed for the production of clotting factors(II , VII , IX , X |
| Why is the liver important regarding hemostasis? | The liver is essential for normal blood clotting as it makes clotting factors (thrombin which comes from prothrombin is a clotting factor made in the liver). |
| Can a blood clot form without calcium? | No, calcium is a required coenzyme in most of the steps in the formation of a permanent clot. |
| What converts prothrombin to thrombin? | Prothrombinase |
| What converts fribrinogen to firbin in hemostasis? | Thrombin |
| How is fibrin different from plasma proteins? | It is insoluble |
| Where do fibrinogen and prothrombin come from? | The liver |
| What is the intrinsic pathway of clotting? | The very slow process of clotting that begins in the bloodstream itself, and is due to damage of a blood vessel. |
| What is the extrinsic pathway of clotting? | The very fast process of clotting outside of the bloodstream, and is due to additional tissue damage. |
| What is syneresis (retraction)? | When fibrin threads are pulled taut (drawn tight) |
| How does syneresis (retraction) occur? | Actin/myosin contractile proteins pull the fibrin threads |
| What causes firbinolysis? | Once the epithelium has repaired, the clot will dissolve (catalyzed by plasmin). |
| What makes a blood type? | The glycoproteins on the surface of RBCs (antigens = cause an immune response). |
| What antibodies does a person with O blood have? | A, B |
| What antigens does a person with A blood have? | A |
| What is the Rh factor? | It is the positive antigen present on some RBC. |
| Does a person who is Rh- have antibodies against Rh+? | Yes, after exposure. |
| Can a person with O+ blood donate to a person with B+ blood? | Yes, O+ blood only has the D antigen which the B+ blood group recognizes. |
| Can a person with AB+ blood donate to a person with O+ blood? | No, because the O+ blood has A & B antibodies. |
| Why is AB+ the universal recipient? | Because it has no antibodies |
| What blocks thromboxane? | Aspirin |
| What is thrombocytosis? | Too many clotting cells |
| What is thrombocytopenia? | Too few clotting cells |
| What is the danger with Rh- women and pregnancy? | If a woman is Rh- and has never been exposed to Rh+, her first born child will expose her to it. This will be a problem for the second child because the mother now posses the Rh+ antibody and will clump this baby's blood. |
| What is erythroblastosis fetalis? | A hemolytic disease of a newborn, which can lead to a stillborn and many debilitating diseases. |
| What is Rhogam? | The shot of Rh+ anitbodies given to Rh- mothers who give birth to Rh+ children to avoid erythroblastosis fetalis in the next child. |
| During firbinolysis what catalyzes Fibrin to Firbinogen? | Plasmin |
| When do unwanted blood clots form? | 1. Slow blood flow (post op patient that is not moving),2. Overweight patients (blood pooiling),3. A rough endothelium (someone with extra fatty plaque, this causes an uneven surface and platelets start sticking) |
| What is DIC (disseminated intravascular coagulation) | Abnormal or excessive clotting |
| Name three anti-coagulants: | 1. Heparin,2. Vitamin K antagonoist,3. TPA (tissue plasminogen activator) |
| Diagram the clotting process: | Prothrombin --> thrombin-->Fibrinogen --> fibrin |
| What is coagulation? | Clotting |
| What is a band? | A young neutrophil |
| What is prostacyclin? | The lining in the blood vessels to keep platelets from sticking |
| What is anemia? | Lowered oxygen carrying capacity of the blood(fatigue, cold feed, dizziness |
| How does lymph move? | lymph nodes --> lymphatic ducts --> subclavian vein --> circulation |
| What is the purpose of lymph nodes? | They absorb fats, drain interstitial fluid, and provide immunity |
| What is the cisterna chyli? | It is a large sac that collects lymph from the lower body and intestines. |
| How is lymph drained from the right leg? | Lymph from the legs and abdomen flows into the cisterna chyli --> thoracic duct --> drains the left side of the body and face --> to the junction between the left jugular and subclavian vein |
| How is lymph drained from the right arm? | Lymph from the right side of face and right arm --> right lymphatic duct --> junction between right jugular and subclavian vein |
| Where does lymph ultimately end up? | General circulation |
| Name the three main functions of the lymphatic system: | 1. Absorb fats,2. Drain interstitial fluid,3. Immunity |
| What are the 3 functions of the spleen? Is it intraperitoneal or retroperitoneal? | 1. Eliminates old RBCs,2. Makes B-cells,3. Stores & releases blood |
| What is the function of the thymus? | 1. Place where T-Cells mature,2. Self recognition |
| What is the function of the tonsils? | Prevent the spread of bacteria in the mouth and throat |
| What is nonspecific resistance (innate)? | Resistance against many types of microorganisms. |
| What is specific resistance (acquired)? | Resistance against a specific microorganism. There is a different response for each antigen. |
| List 4 phagocytic cells: | Macrophages,Monocytes,Neutrophils,Eosinophils |
| Explain the process of phagocytosis | Adherence of bacterium --> formation of phagosome (endocytosis of foreign antigen) --> formation of phagolysosome --> digestion of bacteria |
| Which phagocytes are found in the bloodstream? | Monocytes,Neutrophils,Eosinophils |
| What are tissue phagocytes called? | Macrophages |
| What is complement and what is its function? | (CD3)A series of plasma proteins that "sticks" to foreign invaders to help with phagocytosis (can punch holes in foreign membranes) |
| What is an NK cell, and how is it different from a B or T lymphocyte? | NK cells are nonspecific cells that destroy abnormal body cells using perforins. |
| What is an NK cell, and how is it different from a B or T lymphocyte? | B & T lymphocytes are specific. -B cells = make antibodies,- T cells = key in cellular immunity |
| Give 4 examples of chemical barriers to disease: | 1. Oil from sebaceous glands,2. Lysozyme in tears,3. HCl in gastric juice,4. pH of the vagina |
| Which cells make interferon and why? | Infected cells make interferon inhibit the reproduction of viruses in neighboring cells |
| Is a plasma cell the same as a B cell? | Yes, when B cells are activated they divide, become plasma cells, and rapidly make antibodies. |
| What is an antigen? | A chemical (often a protein [glycoprotein]) that causes an immune response. |
| Explain the location and significance of MHC-I: | It is a self recognition cell that has surface proteins found on all body cells. |
| Explain the location and significance of MHC-II: | It is a self recognition cell that has surface proteins found on immue cells (APCs & B cells). |
| Which cells have MHC-I, and why? | Infected body cells. They present the antigen with MHC-I to stimulate a specific immune response. |
| Which cells have MHC-II, and why? | APCs and macrophages have MHC-II to present the antigen with its MHC-II. |
| Which cell responds to the MHC-I + antigen? | Tcytotoxic cells |
| Which cell responds to the MHC-II + antigen? | T helper cells (CD4) |
| What does a macrophage do in an antibody response? | Phagocytize foreign invaders and present the antigen to the immune cells |
| What does the B cell do? | B cells divide, become plasma cells, and make antibodies (have MHC-II and can preset the antigen to the T helper cells) |
| What does a T helper cell do in a humoral response? | Recognizes MHC-II, divides, and releases cytokines to enhance humoral response (activates B cells) |
| What is a B memory cell? | A B cell that "remembers" the foreign invader so that the next response will be much quicker. |
| What does a macrophage do in a cell-mediated response? | Presents the antigen to a T helper cell |
| What does a T helper cell do in a cell-mediated response? | Divides and releases cytokines to activate tcytotoxic cells) |
| What does a cytotoxic cell do? | (CD8)Destroys infected cells (punches holes into foreign membranes),-Also forms T-memory cells |
| How many different antigens does a Tcytotoxic cell respond to? | One specific antigen |
| What are the two types of specific immunity? | Humoral immunity,Cellular immunity |
| What is humoral immunity? | This is when antibodies attack antigens that are free in the plasma (exogenous antigens). |
| What is cellular immunity? | This is when cells attack antigens that are inside of other cells (endogenous antigens). |
| Differentiate between primary and secondary response: | The primary response is the first response. It takes longer as it is the first exposure to the antigen. |
| Differentiate between primary and secondary response: | The secondary response is quicker because the IgG titer is greater and lasts longer. |
| Name the 5 classes of antibodies: | 1. IgG,2. IgM,3. IgA,4. IgE,5. IgD |
| What is the function of IgG? | It is the most prevalent antibody, can cross the placenta, the titer can determine whether someone has had an infection or not. |
| What is the function of IgM? | It is produced during a fresh infection and has 10 binding sites |
| What is the function of IgA? | It is a secretory antibody found in body secretions(saliva, respiratory mucus, vaginal secretions) |
| What is the function of IgE? | It is an antibody found on mast cells and basophils.When bound to a specific agent they cause those cells to degranulate. |
| What is the function of IgD? | It is an antibody found on memory B cells waiting for the foreign agent to return. |
| How many antigens can bind to IgG? | 2 |
| How many antigens can bind to IgM? | 10 |
| What good does antibody binding of an antigen do anyway? | So T-cells can perform a specific immune response to the antigen and so memory cells can be made. |
| What is monoclonal expansion? | Making a lot of the same cell. |
| What is natural passive immunity? | I got antibodies from someone else by natural means (breastfeeding) |
| What is natural active immunity? | I got sick and made the antibodies |
| What is artificial active immunity? | I made my own antibodies but the stimulation was artificial (vaccination) |
| What is artificial passive immunity? | a shot of antibodies(antivenom - getting bitten by a rabid animal) |
| Explain the pathogenesis of an allergy: | IgE atibodies form against harmless substances |
| Explain the pathogenesis of an autoimmune disease: | The body makes antibodies against its own healthy tissues. |
| Explain the pathogenesis of anaphylactic shock: | Extreme and severe allergies develop due to the failure of the circulatory and respiratory systems. |
| Which cell is affected in aids? | T helper cells (CD4 - they increase the immune response by replicating and releasing cytokines) |
| Where does the heart get its oxygen? | The right and left coronary arteries |
Created by:
SGT.MOSS
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