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Ch. 6 psyc cont
Operant conditioning
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Thorndike's Law of Effect | The consequences, or effect, of a response will determine whether the tendency to respond in the same way in the future will be strengthen or weakened; Trial-and-error learning; Responses with unpleasant consequences will be avoided; Puzzle box |
| Trial-and-error learning | Responses closely followed by "satisfying consequences" are most likely to be repeated |
| Puzzle Box | A cat had to press a pedal or pull a loop in order to escape the box and receive food; The cat learned how to open the door almost immediately after so many trials |
| Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner) | A type of learning in which the consequences of behavior are manipulated in order to: increase or decrease the frequency of a response, Shape an entirely new response |
| Reinforcer | Anything that: 1. Follows a response and strengthens it 2. Increases the probability that is will occur ex. Paying bills on time to avoid steep late fees |
| Positive reinforcement | Any desirable of pleasant consequence that: 1. Follows a response 2. Increases the probability that the response will be repeated Roughly the same as a reward; When you smile at people and they smile back you want to smile at everyone |
| negative reinforcement | termination of an unpleasant condition after a response; increases the probability that the response will be repeated; ex. turning on air conditioning to avoid the heat; heroin addicts will do anything to get another fix to avoid the pains of withdrawals |
| Negative reinforcement and studying | studying in advance, with a group of people, and studying more relieves test anxiety. therefore test anxiety is a negative reinforcer |
| Primary reinforcer | fulfills a basic physical need for survival and does not depend on learning ex. food, water, sleep |
| Secondary reinforcer | Acquired or learned through association with other reinforcers ex. money, praise, applause |
| Shaping | consists of gradually modeling a desired behavior (response) by reinforcing any movement in the direction of the desired response; responses are gradually guided toward the ultimate goal |
| Successive approximations | A series of gradual steps, each of which is more similar to the final desired response; ex. parents praising a child each time they show improvement, circus animals learn tricks |
| Extinction | Weakening or disappearance of a conditioned response due to withholding reinforcers |
| Generalization | The tendency to make the learned response to a stimulus similar to that for which the response was originally reinforced; ex. a pigeon trained to peck a yellow disk will peck similarly colored disks, the less similar in color the lower the rate of pecking |
| Discriminative stimulus | A stimulus that signals whether a certain response or behavior is likely to be rewarded, ignored, or punished; Children misbehave with grandparents be cause parents are not present |
| Schedules of reinforcement | A systematic process for administering reinforcement |
| Fixed ratio | Reinforcement given after a fixed number of responses; an effective way to maintain a high response rate; The faster the response the more reinforcers they receive; paid by how much you do |
| When large ratios are used: | people and animals will pause after each reinforcement, then continue with a high rate of responding |
| Variable ratio | Reinforcement given after a varying number of correct responses; reinforcement can occur anywhere within the given ratio; the reinforcement could occur anywhere in 30 responses but you dont know which response the reinforcer will follow; ex. gambling |
| Fixed interval schedule | Reinforcement given following a correct response after a specific time interval has passed; workers paid by salary (same amount regardless of hours worked); responding will decline after reinforcement and increase right before reinforcement |
| Variable-interval schedule | reinforcement given after the first correct response that follows a varying amount of time; based on average time; maintains a steady and uniform rate of response but lower than ratio schedules; random drug testing |
| Partial reinforcement effect | The greater resistance to extinction that occurs when a portion, rather than all, of the correct responses are reinforced; if parents never give into whining it will stop but if they give in every now and then it will continue |
| Reward seeking | Rewards are among the most important influences that shape behavior; overuse of tangible rewards may undermine people's intrinsic motivation to regulate their own behavior |
| Factors influencing operant conditioning | 1. The magnitude of reinforcement 2. The immediacy of reinforcement 3. The level of motivation of the learner |
| The magnitude of the reinforcement | As magnitude increases, acquisition of a response is faster, rate of responding is higher, and resistance to extinction is greater |
| The immediacy of reinforcement | Responses are conditioned more effectively when reinforcement is immediate; A little delay obscures the relationship between the behavior and the reinforcer |
| The level of motivation of the learner | When food is a reinforcer, a hungry animal learns faster than a full one; If you are motivated to learn tennis you will practice more |
| Punishment | The removal of a pleasant stimulus or the application of an unpleasant stimulus lowers the probability of the response |
| Positive punishment | Behavior decreases from an added consequence; students stop staying up late after sleeping through an important exam |
| Negative punishment | Behavior decreases from the removal of a consequence, usually a desirable one; a driver speeds less often after having his license suspended for 6 months |
| Disadvantages of punishment | -Punishment does not extinguish undesirable behavior -Punishment indicates that a behavior is unacceptable but does not help develop more appropriate behavior -turns the punished hostile toward the punisher -leads to aggression |
| Punishment does not extinguish an undesirable behavior | Suppresses the behavior when punishing agent is present; The action will continue with the threat of punishment is removed or in settings where punishment is not likely; ex. repeat criminal offenders |
| Punishment does not develop more appropriate behavior | Punishment should be used in conjunction with reinforcement or reward for appropriate behavior; punish a kid for hitting with a time out but reward him later for playing nicely |
| The punished becomes fearful, hostile, or feels angry toward punisher | May be accompanied by a desire to retaliate, avoid, or escape the punisher or the punishing situation ex. running away from home; loss of privilege is more effective than physical punishment and causes less fear and hostility |
| Punishment leads to aggression | May model aggressive behavior; demonstrates aggression as a means for solving problems and discharging anger; children with abusive or punishing parents are at a greater risk of becoming aggressive than other children |
| making punishment more effective | -most effective when applied right after the misbehavior -punishment should be of minimal severity -must be applied consistently |
| Punishment is most effective when applied right after misbehavior | interrupting misbehavior diminishes its rewarding aspects; the longer the delay of punishment the less effective it is (dont kick a dog today for what it did yesterday) it wont connect the punishment with the misdeed |
| Punishment should be of minimal severity | severe punishments leads to adverse side effects; purpose of punishment is not to vent anger but to prevent the action, angry punishment wont produce desired outcome mild punishment wont either; the punishment must be worse than the behavior is rewarding |
| Punishment must be applied consistently | parents cannot ignore behavior one day and punish it the next; both parents should react the same way; the behavior will be suppressed when the probability of punishment is high; people wont speed when being followed by a police car |
| Learned helplessness | A passive resignation to aversive conditions learned through repeated exposure to inescapable and unavoidable aversive events; Overmeier and Seligman Experiment |
| Overmeier and Seligman Experiment | Dogs in harness received electric shock, later the dogs that received shock and control group were put in a box; when the warning sound for the shock went off the control group jumped away but the group that received the shock didnt move |
| Outcome of Overmeier and Seligman Experiment | Humans who suffered painful experiences they could not avoid or escape may simply give up and react to disappointment in life by becoming inactive, withdrawn, and depressed |
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