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urinary system bio
bio 122 chap 20
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| def of homeostasis | maintaining a relatively constant internal environment in a changing external environment |
| def of osmoregulation | term that describes the process of ridding body of nitrogenous waste while at same time regulating the water and salt balance in the body |
| kidney: what is the shape; what is it enclosed in; located where; what kidney is higher than the other | bean shaped; a fibrous capsule ; two - one on either side of the vertebral column high in the abdominal cavity at 12th thoracic vertebrea; the left one |
| kidney: what does it mean that they are retroperitoneal | they are behind the parietal peritoneum and against the deep muscles of the back |
| kidneys: what holds them in place | connective tissue, and masses of adipose tissue surrounding the kidneys |
| kidneys: the connective tissue is aka; the adipose fat is aka | renal fascia, renal fat |
| kidney: is there a known mechanism for the active transport of water | no |
| kidney: when water is moved the usual mechanism is the active pumping of _______; what will follow passively | ions; water |
| kidney: what is the functional unit | nephrons |
| kidneys: what are the 3 functions; what are the two segments of a nehpron | filtration, reabsorbtion, secretion; the filter and reabsorbtion tube |
| kidneys: what surface is convex ; what surface is concave ; what is the renal sinus | the lateral side; the medial side; the hollow chamber inside the concave side of the kidney |
| kidneys: what is the entrance of the renal sinus called ; what enters and leaves the kidney through the hilum | the hilum; BVs, nerves, lymphatic vessels and ureters |
| what structures are part of the urinary ssytem | kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra |
| kidney: what is the renal pelvis; where is the renal pelvis in side of | on superior end of the ureter expands to form the funnel shaped sac; the renal sinus |
| kidney: the renal pelvis is subdivided into what; the major calyces are subdivided into what | major calyx, minor calyx |
| kidney: what is a renal papilla | a small projection the extends into each minor calyx - it is the tip of the renal pyramid |
| what are the 2 regions ofthe kidney | the renal cortex and the renal medulla |
| kidney: renal medulla- what are the conical masses called what are located here ; why does the tissue appear striated here | the renal pyramids; b/c it consists of microscopic tubules that lead from the cortex to the renal papillea |
| kindeys: renal pyramid- the base of the pyramid are oriented to where; what do the apexes form | the convex surface; the renal pyramids |
| kidneys: the renal cortex contain what | nephrons |
| kidneys: each kidney has how many nephrons | 1-3 million |
| kidneys: what forms a shell around the kidney | the renal cortex |
| kidneys: what sourrounds the renal cortex | the renal capsule; a fibrous membrane that helps maintain shape of the kidney and provides some protection |
| kidneys: what is the main function of them | the regulate volume, composition, and pH of body fluids |
| kidneys: they remove ____ waste from blood and excretes them to where | metabolic/ nitrogen waste; outside |
| kidneys: they secrete ____ to regulate BP; what is renin | renin; an enzyme |
| kidneys: function- what hormone do they secrete to help regulate RBC formation in the bone marrow | EPO |
| kidneys: it actives what vitamen; the regulates the absorption of what | vit D; calcium ion |
| what is hemodialysis | a persons blood is rerouted across an artificial membrane that cleanses it removing substances that would normally be excreted in the urine |
| renal Blood vessels: renal arteries are branch from what artery ; the renal arteries branch until they enter what | the abdominal aorta; the glomerulus |
| nephron: what are the two structures of the nephrons | a renal corpuscle and a renal tubule |
| nephron:- glomerulus- what is it ; where in nephron is it located ; what is the glomerular; aka | a filtering unit composed of atangled cluster of blood capillaries; in the renal corpuscle ; a thin walled saclike structure surrounding the glamerulus; bowmans capsule |
| nephron: what is the expanded end of the renal tubule | the glomerular capsule |
| renal arteries: how much of the blood do they carry at rest; the renal artery enters kidneys through what ; the renal artery branches into what; the interlobar arteries pass between what | 15-30% of total C/O; the hilum; interlobar arteries ; renal pyramids |
| renal arteries: the interlobar arteries branch to form what ; acuate arteries branche to form what ; the interlobular arteries are aka; the afferent arterioles lead to where | acuate arteries; interlobular arteries ; afferent arterioles; the nephron |
| renal veins: it joins what vein of body | the inferior vena cava |
| glomerulus: what arterioles leads to it; what artery is after it | the afferent; the efferent |
| what is the expanded end of the renal tubule | the glomerular capsule |
| glomerulus: what is its shape; what type of cells compose the capsule; | cup shaped; 2 layers of squamous epithelial cells |
| glomerulus- glomerular capsule- what are the names of the 2 layers of squamous epithelium; the visceral layer covers what; the pariatel layer covers what | visceral pariatel; the glomerulus; continuous with the visceral layer and wall of the renal tubule |
| glomerulus- glomerular capsule- what layer of the squamous epithelium was podocytes; what are podocytes; what are pedicels; what do the pedicels intertwine with | the visceral layer; process that come of the visceral layer; they are processes that come of of the podocyte; they intertwine with the adjacent podocyte and form slit pores |
| glomerulus- what is the name for the tube that leads away from the glomerulus; what does convuluted mean; what follows the proximal convoluted tubule; nephron loop aka | proximal convoluted tubule; highly coiled; the nephron loop; loop of henle |
| nehron loop- what is the descending limb of the loop; when does the tubule become the ascending limb; what tubule is after the loop | this portion drops down into the renal pelvis; when the tubule curves back to its renal corpuscle; the distal convoluted tubule |
| tubules- is the proximal or the distal convoluted tubule shorter | the distal |
| distal convoluted tubule- many of these merge where; when they merge they form what | in the renal cortex; collecting ducts |
| is the collecting duct part of the nephron | no |
| collecting ducts- urine empties from the collecting ducts to where; how does the urine empty to the minor calyx | the minor calyx; through an opening in a renal papilla |
| juxtaglomerular apparatus: how many cells make this up; what are the names of the two types of cells; where is the apparatus located; this structure is important in regulating the secretion of what | 2; macula densa and juxtaglomerular cells -both smooth muscle cells; where the distal convoluted tubules pass between the afferent and efferent arterioles; renin |
| types of nephrons: name 2 types; where are the cortical nephrons found; what type dip deep into medulla and have long loop of henle; what type have a short loop of henle; what one does most of filtering; what % are cortical and what % are juxtamedullary | cortical and juxtamedullary; in the renal cortex; juxtamedullary; cortical; the juxtamedullary; 80% and 20% |
| what artioles in kidney has the greatest diameter | the afferent arteriole |
| what arteriole enters the glomerulus and what one leaves the glomerulus | afferent; efferent |
| blood supply: since the efferent arteriole has a smaller diameter than the afferent one this creates a resistance to what; where does the blood back up to | blood flow; it backs up in the glomerulus causing high pressure in the glomerular capillary |
| blood supply to kidney: the efferent arteriole branches into a complex network of capillaries called what | peritubular capillary system |
| blood supply to kidney:peritubular capillary system- is the blood here have high or low pressure; what is the vasa recta ; the vasa recta increases the efficiency of what | low; they are branches of the system that loop down and around the loop of henle in the juxtamedullary nephrons; the nephrons |
| the formation of urine: what is the end product of kidney functions; what does urine contain; what are the 3 main process of urine formation | urine; wastes and excess water; glomerular filtration; reabsorption back to blood plasma; and secretion by active transport from plasma into the tubules; |
| urine excretion = ________+ ______ - ______ | glomerular filtrate + tubular secretion - tubular reabsorption |
| urine formation: the force of BP causes what to occur at all capillaries in the body; how many cappillaries are used working in a series to create filtration in a nephron; the 1st capillary bed is specialized only to ____;what is the filtered fluid called | filtration; 2; filter; filtrate; |
| urine formation: once the filtrate leaves the 1st capillary bed it moves to where; much of the filtrate in the renal tubule is destined to become what ; glomerular filtration produces how much filtrate in 24 hours | the renal tubule; urine; 180 liters |
| urine formation: how does most of the filtered filtrate return to the internal environment | by tubular reabsorption; |
| urine formation: tubular reabsorption- def; what substances must the body eliminate | is selectively reclaiming just the right amount of substances that the body requires; hydrogen ions and certain toxins |
| urine formation: substances can be removed even faster than filtration through what method | tubular excretion |
| how do the kidneys contribute to homeostasis | by maintaining the composistion of the internal environment |
| urine formation: glomerular filtration- materials move out of the blood at the glomerulus into the bowman's capsule by what force; what "holes" does the blood slip through | hydrostatic (BP) pressure; many small openings in the capillaries called fenestrae and the inner cells wall of the capsule have lots of slit pores |
| list the flow of blood starting from the renal artery and ending at the renal veins | renal artery; interlobar a., arcuate a., afferent arteriole, glomerular cappillary, efferent arteriole, vasa recta and peritbular capillary, interlobular v, arcuate v., interlobar v., renal vein |
| urine formation: glomerular filtration- what is filtered out ; the particles are filtered out of the glomerular capillary and into where; why aren't large molecules filtered out; the glomerular filtrate is almost the same constitution as what | water small molecules and ions; the glomerular capsule; b/c of there size; blood plasma |
| urine formation: glomerular filtration- what are fenestrae ; the fenestrae allow what | the many tiny openings on the glomerular capillary walls ; the cappilary to be more permeable to small molecules than other capillaries in body |
| urine formation: glomerular filtration- when the particles leave the glomerular capillary and enters the glomerular capsule it is now called what | glomerular filtrate; |
| urine formation: glomerular filtration- what is the main force that moves substances by filtering through the glomerular capillary wall; what other 2 things influence glomerular filtration; the net effect of these 3 forces is called __ | BP; the osmatic pressure of the blood plasma and the hydrostatic pressure in the glomerular capsule; filtration pressure |
| urine formation: glomerular filtration- net filtration pressure= _____ -_______ & _______ | glomerular hydrostatic pressure- capsular hydrostatic pressure & glomerular capillary osmotic pressure |
| urine formation: glomerular filtration- is the net filtration pressure normally positive or negative; this positive pressure favors what | positive; filtration at the glomerulus |
| urine formation: glomerular filtration- GFR- GFR aka ; GFR is directly proportional to what ; this means what | glomerular filtration rate; the net filtration pressure; the factors that effect the glomerular hydrostatic pressure in the glomerular capsule also effect the rate of filtration |
| urine formation: glomerular filtration- GFR- what is most important in determining net filtration and GFR | glomerular hydrostatic pressure |
| urine formation: glomerular filtration- GFR- the glomerular capillary lies between what to arterioles; b/c of this any change in the diameter of the arterioles can change the ____ | the afferent and efferent; the glomerular hydrostatic pressure and GFR |
| urine formation: glomerular filtration- GFR- why does the afferent artioles vasoconstrict; the constricting afferent arteriole can result in what; with slower movement of blood into the glomerulus what happens to the GFR | in response to the stimulation by the sympathetic nerve impulse; less and slower movement of blood into the glomerulus; it drops |
| urine formation: glomerular filtration- GFR- what happens if the efferent arteriole constricts; does net filtration pressure increase or decrease; does GFR rise or lower; what produces the opposite of the effect | blood backs up into the glomerulus ; increases; rises; vasodilation |
| urine formation: glomerular filtration- GFR- why is much more fluid filtered by the glomerular capillaries than elsewhere ; what raises the colloid osmotic pressure | b/c of the relatively high bp in the capillaries; the proteins that remain in the cappillaries when filtrate leaves |
| urine formation: glomerular filtration- GFR- what happens to the filtration rate is osmotic pressure rises and why ; what happens to the GFR if the is concetration of plasma proteins decases | it slows because there are large concetration of molocules pulling the filtrate back in; GFR increases |
| what are the 3 plasma proteins ; what is the term when there is a higher concentration of solutes | albumin globulins and fibrinogens; hypertonic |
| urine formation: glomerular filtration- GFR- what can increase the BP in the glomerular capsule ; why do these things increase BP | a kidney stone or an enlarge prostate pinching the urethra; the fluids back up into the renal tubules and raise the pressure |
| urine formation: glomerular filtration- GFR- does an increase of hydrostatic oppose or increase GFR; does increased BP increase of decrease GFR; what is the term for the pressure in the glomerular capsule | it opposes; decrease ; capsular hydrostatic pressure |
| our blood goes through the kidneys how many times a day ; what is the average exccretion of urine per day | 60 times; 0.5- 2.5 liters a day |
| urine formation: glomerular filtration- GFR- if every thing is working properly what is strongest between net filtration pressure, hydrostatic pressure in the glomerular capsule and the osmotic pressure | the net filtration pressure is greatest |
| urine formation: glomerular filtration- the volume of plasma that the kidneys filters depends on the surface area of what; | the glomerular capillaries |
| control of filtration rate: GFR remains constant through what process ; what can override autoregulation | autoregulation; GFR increases with excess body fluids and decreases when body must conserve fluid |
| control of filtration rate: autoregulation- what happens if BP and volume drop to the afferent arterioles; the filtration pressure; the GFR; the urine formation; what happens if there is excess body fluids | they vasocontrict; it decreases; decreases; decreases; vasodilation of afferent arterioles occurs and it all reverses |
| control of filtration rate: what is renin; what secretes renin; what stimulates the secretion of renin; what is the name for the pressure sensitive cells | an enzyme; the juxtaglomerular cells of afferent arterioles; the sympathetic nerves and pressure sensitive cells ; renal baroreceptors |
| control of filtration rate: is renin secreted when BP drops or increases | when it drops; |
| control of filtration rate: macula densa- what is it ; where does it run between; what does it also control; it detects levels of what and where; does increasing or decreasing of these ions stimulate renin secretion | a group of epithelial cells on the distal convoluted tubule; the afferent and efferent arterioles at the glomerulus; renin secretion;blood urea nitrogen, sodium, potassium, chloride in the distal renal tubule; decreasing levels |
| blood urea nitrogen aka | BUN |
| control of filtration rate: macula densa- it signals the smooth muscles where; this signal constricts the vessel causing blood flow to decrease causing what else to decrease ; this decrease releases what | in the afferent arterioles; glomerular pressure and decrease filtration rate; renin |
| control of filtration rate: - renin reacts with what plasma protein; this reactions forms what; what enzyme is always present on capillary endothelial cells;angotensin converting enzyme is aka; ACE converts angiotensin 1 to what | angiotensinsinogen; angotensin 1; angotensin converting enzyme; ACE; angiotensin 2 |
| control of filtration rate: ACE- where is angiotensinogen often located; how is ACE a vasoconstricter; when the afferent arterioles are constrict ACE constricts what else to increase filtration; this helps regulate what | in the lungs; it affects both the afferent and efferent arterioles; the efferent arterioles; autoregulation of GFR; |
| control of filtration rate: ACE- what adrenal cortical hormone does it work with; what does aldosterone do | aldosterone; stiumulates sodium reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule thus reducing the amount if sodium excreted in the urine |
| control of filtration rate: what is Atrial natriuretic peptide; aka; this effects what secretion; when is ANP secreted more; why would the atria of the heart stretch; the increased sodium excretion increases what else | a hormone; ANP; sodium excretion; when the atria of the heart stretch; due to increased blood volume; GFR |
| tubular reabsorption: def; | process in which substances are transported out of the tubular fluid, through the epithelium of the renal tubule and into the interstitial fluid then into the peritubular capillaries |
| tubular reabsorption: this returns fluids to where; why is the rate of reabsorption fairly fast ; what capillary is most permeable | the internal environment; b/c the blood slows down in the peritubular capillary and they are wider then the efferent arterioles. ;the peritubular capillary |
| tubular reabsorption: where does 65% of reabsorption of the filtrate take place; the epithelial cells of the tubules have what on there border to increase what; what are some of the common materials reabsorbed | in the proximal convoluted tubules; microvilli to increase surface area for more efficient reabsorption; glucose, amino acids, urea, potassium, sodium, calcium, chloride and phosphate ions |
| tubular reabsorption: why is it termed tubular; | b/c this process is controlled by the epithelial cells that make up the renal tubules |
| tubular reabsorption: active transport: it is able to move substances how; if active transport is involved at any step of the way what is the process considered what; all cases without the use of active transport are considered | uphill against a concentration gradient; active tubular reabsorption; passive |
| tubular reabsorption:active transport- what is expended to achieve active transport; | ATP; |
| tubular reabsorption: what processes enhance the rate of fluid reabsorption from the renal tubule | active transport, the wall of the peritubular capillary is more permeable than that of other capillaries, the high rate of glomular filtration increases colloid osmotic pressureof the peritubular plasma |
| tubular reabsorption: the proximal convoluted tubule has what on the epithelial cells on the surface facing the tubular lumen; | microvilli; they greatly increase the surface area exposed to the glomerular filtrate and enhance reabsorption |
| tubular reabsorption: where does glucose reabsorption take place and by what; where is water reabsorbed and by what | the walls of the proximal convoluted tubule active transport; the proximal convoluted tubule by osmosis |
| tubular reabsorption: what parts of the nephron are impermeable to water | portions of the distal convoluted tubule and the collecting ducts |
| tubular reabsorption: active transport: this requires carrier ___ in the cell membrane; what binds to the carrier | proteins; the molecule needing to be transported; |
| tubular reabsorption: glucose- is glucose usually all reabsorbed; why; what happens when plasma glucose increases to a critical level; what happens if glucose remains in the filtrate; this explains what in DM | yes; there are enough carrier molecules to transport it; more glucose molecules are in the filtrate than active transport can handle; some glucose remains in the filtrate and is excreted in the urine; elevated BG of DM results in glucose in urine |
| what is an increase in urine volume called | diuresis |
| tubular reabsorption: what happens when glucose is not reabsorption to the osmotic pressure; this increase in osmotic pressure reduces what | increases it; reduces the volume of water reabsorption by osmosis from the proximal tubule |
| tubular reabsorption: how many types of active transport mechanisms are used by amino acids; this is very efficient meaning the filtrate is nearly free of what | 3; protein |
| tubular reabsorption: what small protein can squeeze through the glomerular capillary; how are these proteins reabsorbed | albumins; endocytosis |
| renal plasma threshold: def; what happens to anything excess in this level; this is the reason the doctor wants what ; this is aka | this is a critical level that is maintained by the kidneys to maintain homeostasis; it is excreted in the urine; a urine sample; threshold maximum |
| sodium and water reabsorption: how is water always reabsorbed; is water reabsorption passive or active; water reabsorption is closely associated with active reabsorption of what; what happens if sodium reabsorption increases | by osmosis; passive; sodium ions; water reabsorption increases; |
| sodium and water reabsorption: what happens if sodium reabsorption decreases; why does sodium increase water reabsorption; this sodium reabsorption is aka | water reabsorption decreases; b/c sodium concetration sets up a strong hypertonic situation and water follows passively; sodium pump mechanism |
| sodium and water reabsorption: when the positively charged sodium ions are moved through the tubular wall what accompanies them; why do the negatively charged ions move with sodium; is energy used to move these particles | negatively charged ions like chloride, potassium, bicarbonate ions; due to the electrochemical attraction between particles of opposite electrical charge; no |
| sodium and water reabsorption: the proximal convoluted tubule reabsorbs __% of the filtered sodium, other ions, and water; is almost all sodium and water reabsorbed; small changes in the tubular reabsorption result in what | 70%; yes; large changes in urinary excretion of these substances |
| tubular secretion: what does this process do; how are the materials transported into the opposite direction; what controls the process; | transports certain substances via active transport out of the peritubular capillary into the renal tubule; b/c it is from the blood into the tubules instead of back to the blood; the epithelial cells of the renal tubules |
| tubular secretion: what makes urine acidic | b/c hydrogen ions are secreted throughout the entire renal tubule |
| where does the countercurrent mechinism occur | the loop of henle |
| loop of henle: how did it get its counter current mechanism name; | due to the fact that fluid moving down the descending limb of the loop and produces a current counter to that of the fluid moving up the ascending loop. |
| loop of henle: the tubular fluid that reaches the distal convoluted tubular is hypo or hypertonic; why; in what limb is it hypertonic | hypotonic; b/c of the changes that occur through the loop segment of of the nephron; the descending |
| loop of henle: what limb is impermeable to water but actively transports chloride ions; what ions passively leave with chloride; what is the result of the chloride and potassium ions leaving from the limb | the descending limbs; potassium; the the outside of the limb becomes hypertonic |
| loop of henle: so why does water leave the descending limb; what becomes more and more hypertonic to the blood in the peritbular capillaries; why is it called the counter current multiplier | b/c the hypertonic state the ascending limb sets up; the contents of the descending limb; because salt goes from descending limb into the ascending limb where it is absorbed into the medulla and goes back to the descending limb |
| loop of henle: each circuit increases what; this salt concentration is aided by what; is alot or a little salt carried away | increases the salt concentration; the vasa recta; a little |
| loop of henle: what is the vasa recta; what loop is permeable to water; what loop is impermeable to water | the bv that surround the loop of henle branch from the peritubular capillaries; ascending loop; descending loop |
| distal convoluted tubule and collecting ducts: are they permeable or impermeable to water; these become permeable to water if what is present ; when more water becomes excreted it is considered what | impermeable; the antidiuretic hormone; diluted |
| impermeable to water means what | more water can be excreted |
| loop of henle: when is the filtrate isotonic; what happens as the filtrate rounds the bend and flows into the ascending limb; | when it enters the loop of henle; the permeability of the tubule epithelium changes from water permeable to impermeable and salt impermeable to permeable |
| loop of henle: what leaves the ascending limb as the filtrate approaches the cortex of the kidney; why | the salt; b/c the ascending limb is more permeable to the salt; |
| loop of henle: what loop produces a more salty filtrate; where does the salt go in the ascending limb; the concentration of the interstitual fluid of salt increase where | the descending limb; in the interstitial fluid; at the ascending limb |
| loop of henle: what is the mechanism called here; why does the tubule become hypotonic | the countercurrent mechanism; b/c is it losing solutes |
| loop of henle: whant segment is thick; what segment is thin | the ascending limb; the descending limb |
| loop of henle: descending limb- permeable to water yes or no; permeable to salt yes or no; water leaves it by what | yes; no; osmosis |
| loop of henle: ascending limb- permeable to water yes or no; permeable to salt yes or no | no; yes |
| def of hyertonic | when the contents of the solution become more concentrated |
| what gland secretes the antidiuretic hormone ADH; when is ADH secreted ; what is the result of the secretions of ADH; will the urine be more or less concentration | the posterior pituitary gland ; when the pituitary gland detects a shortage in water; more water will be secreted and leave the distal convulated tubule; more |
| where is the "thirst" center of the brain | in the hypothalamus |
| urea: what is it; the amount of urea excreted in the urine reflects what in our diet; how much urea is excreted; this provides ____ concentration inthe medullary interstitual fluid; this; this osmotic concentration does what | the byproduct of amino acid catabolism in the liver; protein; 80%; osmotic; helps reabsorb water; urea contributes to the reabsorption of water from the collecting ducts |
| uric acid: what is it; what are the names of the nucleic acid bases | the product of the metabolism of certain nucleic acid bases (organic bases); purines adenine and guanine |
| def of diuretic | a substance that causes diuresis |
| how does the vasa recta contribute to the countercurrent mechanism: as blood flows slowly down the descending portion of the vasa recta what enters it by diffusion; as the blood moves to the renal cortex what happens; does the blood stream carry away salt | salt; most of the salt diffuses from the blood and reenters the interstitial fluid; very little |
| loop of henle: the higher the blood levels of what hormone makes the epithelial lining more permeable; this increased permeability leads to what; does ADH excretion increase or decrease when body fluids contain excess water | ADH; increased water reabsorbtion; decreases |
| uric acid excretion: uric acid is a product of what; what completely reabsorbs the uric acid that is filtered; how does uric acid relate to gout | metabolism; active transport; uric acid crystals are deposited in joints |
| functions of nephron: what filters water; what receives the glomerular filtrate; what reabsorbs substances; what reabsorbs water; what reabsorbs ions | glomerulus; glomerular capsule; proximal convolutes tubules; descending limb of nephron loop; ascending limb of nephron loop; distal convoluted tubule; |
| how much urea in blood is eliminated; what % of uric acid is eliminated | 50%; 10% |
| urine composition: it reflects what; what % is water; abnormal constituents in urine may indicate what; | the volumes of water and solutes that the kidneys must eliminate from body to maintain homeostasis; 95%; illness |
| what is the volume of urine produced daily; an output of less than 30 mL of urine indicates what | 0.6 -2.5 l a day; renal failure |
| ureters: where does it begin; length; where does it send urine to; what helps move the urine along the ureters | at the renal pelvis; 25 cm longs; the bladder; muscular peristaltic waves |
| what is inflammation of the urinary bladder called; what is inflammation of the ureter called; what prevents urine from backing up into the ureters once it reaches the bladder | cystitis; ureteritis; a flaplike fold of mucous membrane that acts like a valve to prevent back up |
| ureters: what happens when the ureter becomes obstructed by a kidney stone; | the strong peristaltic waves are initiated in the proximal portion of the tube which may help move stone or cause lots of pain |
| what are kidney stones composed of | calcium, uric acid; magnesium |
| urinary bladder: what is it; | a hollow distendable muscular organ located in the pelvic cavity posterior to the symphysis pubis and inferior to the parietal peritoneum; |
| urinary bladder: what happens to the inner wall when it is empty; what happens to the inner wall when it is full of urine; what is the trigone | it forms many folds; the wall is smooth; of the internal floor of the bladder the has an opening at 3 angles |
| urinary bladder- trigone: what are the base 2 holes; what is at the point; why is the trigone so special | the ureters; the opening to the urethra; b/c it remains in a fixed position even when the bladder is distended |
| urinary bladder: how many layers compose the wall; name them from inner to outer; what is the mucous coat made of; what happens to the epithelium when the wall is distended | 4; mucous coat, submucous coat, muscular coat, serous coat; transitional epithelium; the cells only appears 2-3 cells thick |
| urinary bladder: what is the submucosa made of; what is the name of the muscle in the muscular layer; what does the detrusor muscle form in the neck of the bladder; what is the serous coat made of | connective tissue and elastic fibers; detrusor muscle; the internal urethral sphincter; parietal peritoneum and fibrous CT |
| urethra: how long is it in a female; how long is it in male; what is it; | 4 cm; 8 cm; conveys urine from urinary bladder to the outside of the body; |
| urethra: is the external urethra sphincter voluntary or unvoluntary; where is the micturation center in the brain; how is the micturation center notified | voluntary; in the CNS; by the stretch receptors in the wall of the bladder |
| urinary bladder: in a male the urethra functions as what 2 things; what is the urine reflex called; what stimulates the urge to urinate | as a urinary canal and passageway for cells and secretions from the reproductive organs; micturation; the wall of the bladder |
| urinary bladder: how much urine can the bladder hold; when does the desire to urinate occur; when does the sensation to urinate become increasingly uncomfortable | 600 ml; 150 ml; when the bladder fills to 300 ml |
| what does balance mean | a state of equilibrium |
| why are water and electrolyte balance interdependent | b/c electrolytes are dissolved in the water of body fluids |
| the quantity of substances entering the body should equal what | the quantity leaving the body |
| ___ are electrolytes that release ions | acids |
| most electrolytes have what type of bond | ionic |
| what type of system regulate hydrogen ion concentration | buffer systems |
| name the type of chemical buffers ; do they act slowly or fast | bicarbonate buffer, phosphate buffer, protein buffer; fast |
| name the physiological buffers ; do they act slowly or fast | respiratory adjustments, kidney activity; slowly |
| body fluids are either inter or extra ___ | cellular |
| transcellular fluids; what are they; example | they are specialized extracellular fluids that are separated by epithelial cells; CSF, aqueous and vitreous humor of the eyes, synovial fluid in the joints, bosy serous fluid |
| intercellular fluid: what is it; this makes up what % of the total body volume in males; what % in females; why do females have less; what is in intercellular fluid | all the water and electrolytes inside the the cell itself; 63%; 53%; b/c they usually have more fat which is less dense and holds less water; k+, magnesium, Na+, Cl-, HCO3-, electrolytes |
| what type of fluid is in the cells | intercellular fluid |
| extracellular fluid: what are they; examples; they have high concetrations of what | the fluids outside the cell; tissue fluid, interstitual fluid, blood plasma, lymph; potassium, ca++, Mg+, PO4, SO4- |
| movement of fluid between compartments: what are the 2 ways this happens; what type of pressure is at the arteriole end; what type of pressure is at the venule end | BP or osmosis; hydrostatic pressure; osmotic pressure |
| movement of fluid between compartments:what is osmotic pressure due to; since most cell membranes are permeable to water a decreased extracellular sodium ion concentration causes a net moevment of water to where; | impermeant solutes on one side of the cell membrane; from extracellular compartment into the intracellular compartment by osmosis |
| movement of fluid between compartments: what is the average movement of water a day | 2500 mL |
| what is water balance | when the total intake of water equals the total loss of water |
| water intake: 60% of water intake comes from what; 30% comes from what; 10% comes from what; what produces 10% of water | drinking; foods; metabolism; catabolism or break down of molecules |
| water intake: the intense feeling of thirst is from what; where is the thirst center; what happens to osmotic pressure when the body loses water | derives from the osmotic pressure of extracellular fluids and the thirst center in the brain; the hypothalamus; the osmotic pressure increases |
| water intake: when osmotic pressure of extracellular fluids increases this can stimulate what; this stimulation causes the person to to feel what; s/s of thirst ; when is thirst mechanism initiated | the osmoreceptors in the thirst center; thirsty; dry mouth caused by loss extracellular water, decreased flow of saliva; when body water decreases by as little as 1% |
| water output: what % from urine; what % from feces; what % from sweat; what % from skin; why can skin evaporation change drastically; what is the primary means of water output | 60%; 6%; 6%; 28%; due to environmental situations like exercise, temp, humidity; control of urine production |
| water output: if insufficient water is taken in what must be reduced in order to maintain balance; | water output; |
| thirst center: if the blood is more concentrated what leaves; the thirst center stimulates the release of what; what gland releases the ADH; when is ADH is released; | water; ADH; the posterior pituitary; when the body needs water; |
| water output: what happens to the plasma when a person drinks water; what happens to the osmoreceptors as the person drinks more water; is ADH released or inhibited when a person drinks water | the plasma becomes less concentrated; they swell; inhibited |
| dehydration: def; causes; the extracellular fluid becomes hyper or hypo tonic; water leaves the cells by what; who is more likely to become dehydrated ; Tx | a deficiency of water, output exceeds the input; excessive sweating, illness with high fever, excess vomiting and diarrhea; more hypertonic; by osmosis; infants and elderly ; replace the lost water or electrolytes |
| water intoxication: aka; when does this happen; is the extracellular fluid hyper or hypo tonic; where does the water move | hyponatremia; when there is too great an intake of pure water and too much for the kidneys to handle; hypotonic; to the hypotonic cells and they swell |
| edema: def; cause | water retention in interstitial spaces; inactivity, decrease in plasma protein, abstructed lymph vessels, increased venous pressure, increased capillary permeability, |
| electrolytes: are they ions; what are they; | no; they are the substances released from the ions- charged particles; |
| regulation of electrolyte balance: severe electrolyte deficiency will cause what cravings; when are electrolytes usually lost; what is a cause of a greater electrolyte output | salt cravings; during exercise or during a warm day; a result of kidney function and urine production |
| regulation of electrolyte balance: is water polar or nonpolar; what does it mean that water is polar | polar; the dissolved particles remain intact |
| regulation of electrolyte balance: since electrolytes are ionically bonded what does this mean; | they dissociate is water are release water; |
| what does it mean that water is polar | that it has charged places on its molecules |
| what type of bond does an electrolyte have; what happens to an electrolyte in water; when the electrolyte dissociates in water what does it realease | ionic; it dissociates; ions |
| osmolarity: def; one molecule of glucose yields how many dissolved particles; one molecule of sodium chloride yields how many dissolved particles; the dissolved particles are referred to as what | the total solute concentration of a body fluid; 1;2; osmoles |
| osmolarity: what gives the osmolarity of a solution | the total number of osmoles per liter |
| name the positively charged ions; the concentration of negatively charged ions is controlled by the regulation of what; are positive ions actively or passively absorbed; what follows the active absorbtion of positive ions | na+, k+, ca++; positive ions; actively; negative ions |
| sodium ions: they make up ___% of positive ions in extracellular fluid; where are they regulated; what do they respond to; where is aldosterone excreted; what does aldosterone do to sodium; what else does it regulate | 90%; in the kidneys; aldosterone; in the cortex of the adrenal glands; it increases sodium absorption in the distal convoluted tubules; k+ |
| parathyroid hormone: regulates the concentration of what; what stimulates the release of this hormone; what happens when this is released; | calcium ions; the shortatge of ca++; it activates the osteoclasts to reabsorb bone cells and release calcium in the blood; |
| acid base balance: what are acids; what is h+; what are bases; why is the regulation of h+ important | electrolytes the ionize in water and release h+; hydrogen ions; substances that combine with h+; slight changes can cause an imbalance in homeostasis |
| name the sources of h+ | aerobic respiration of glucose; anerobic respiration of glucose; incomplete oxidation of fatty acids; oxidation of amino acids containing sulfur; hydrolysis of phosphoproteins and nucleoproteins |
| sources of H+- aerobic respiration of glucose: what does it produce; carbonic acid breaks down into what | ATP, water, carbon dioxide; H+ and bicarbonate acid; |
| acid base balance: the degree to whicha solution can be acidic or basic is represented by what ; what should the pH of blood be | pH; 7.35- 7.45 |
| how does aldosterone regulate potassium ions | stimulates tohe renal tubular secrettion of potassium ions |
| sources of H+- anaerobic respiration of glucose: what happens in this process; what is the byproducts; what does lactic acid do to your muscles | pyruvic acid converts to lactic acid in the absense of oxygen; h+ is the byproduct and acts h+ to body fluids; makes them hurt |
| sources of H+- incomplete oxidation of fatty acids: how are ketones normally produces; what happens if fatty acids are not completely broken down; name the types of ketones; ketones are acids or bases; ketones release what; ketones can be excreted where | in small quanities and used by cells for energy; they convert to ketones; acetonacetic acid; beta hydrobutyric acid and acetone; acids; h+; in the urine or breath |
| does h+ lower or increase pH | lower it |
| what happens if cells cannot absorb glucose; rapid fat metabolism increase blood what; ketones carry what out of the body; when na+ and K+ leaves the body this causes what;ss/ of electrolyte def. | they will use fat and protein for energy; fatty acids and ketones;na+ and k+; and electrolyte deficiency; abdom pain, vomiting irregular heartbeat, coma and death |
| sources of H+- oxidation of amino acids containing sulfur: what does this produce; this sulfuric acid breaks down to what | sulfuric acid; h+ |
| sources of H+- hydrolysis of phosphoproteins and nucleoproteins: what does this form; this phosphoric acid ionizes into what | phosohoric acid; h+ |
| strength of acids and bases: acids that ionize more completely are stronger or weaker acids; acids that ionize less completely are strong or weak acids; strength of acids ore bases are indicated by what; positive ions = ____; negative ions = ___ | strong; weak; the length of reaction arrow; acids; bases; |
| bases release substance that combine with ___ to lower what concentration | h+; H+; |
| regulation of h+ concentration: what are the 3 ways it is regulated | buffer systems, respiratory center of the brain, nephrons of the kidneys |
| regulation of h+ concentration: buffer systems: name the types; what are buffers | acid base, bicarbonate, phosphate and protein; substances that stabilize the pH of a solution despite the addition of an acid or base |
| regulation of h+ concentration: acid-base buffer systems: what is it | in all body fluids and are based on the chemicals that combine with excess acids or bases |
| regulation of h+ concentration: buffer systems: a strong acid reacts with a weak base to produce what; a strong base reacts with a weak acid to produce what | a weaker acid and neutralizing it; weaker base |
| regulation of h+ concentration: bicarbonate buffer systems: bicarbonate ions are used in what type of fluids | intra and extra cellular fluids |
| regulation of h+ concentration: phosphate buffer systems: what are the 2 phosphate ions; what happens if there is an excess of H+; what happens if there is excess bases | dihydrogen phosphate and monohydrogen phosphate; monohydrate is converted into dihydrogen and h+ is lowered; dihydrogen is converted to monohydrogen |
| regulation of h+ concentration: protein buffer systems: what type of proteins are used | body proteins plasma proteins, cellular proteins, amino acids |
| regulation of h+ concentration: respiratory center: this helps h+ concentration by controlling what; what increases during exercise; this stimulates what in brain; chemosensitive area increases or decreases breathing | by controlling the rate and depth of breathing; carbonic acid; chemosensitive area; increases; |
| regulation of h+ concentration: respiratory center: inceases breathing increases more co2 or 02 excretion | co2; |
| regulation of h+ concentration: kidneys: is h+ moved by active or passive transport into renule tubules for excretion; deamination of amino acids in the cells produce what; ammonium easilty diffuse into cell membrane & accepts another h+ to produce what | active; ammonia; ammonium |
| regulation of h+ concentration: kidneys: are cell membranes permeable to ammonium; since the cell membranes are not then what happens | no; the ammonium is excreted into urine |
| line of defenses in pH: what is the 1st line of defense; what is the 2nd line of defense | the fast acting acid base buffers; the slow systems of respiratory and renal systems and take more time for pH adjustment |
| acid base imbalance: acidosis- a result of what; what ion will be increased in body fluids; what are the 2 ways it can happen | accumulation of acids or loss of bases; h+; respiratory and metabolic |
| acid base imbalance: respiratory acidosis- the pH is < __; caused by increase in what level; co2 level increases what other level; what should offset this | 7.35; co2 levels; increase carbonic acid; buffers and increased breathing |
| acid base imbalance: metabolic acidosis- pH is > __; cause | 7.45; abnormal accumulation of other acids in body fluids or loss of bases; |
| acid base imbalance: alkalosis-results from loss of what; or results from accumulation of what ; what are the 2 types | acids; bases; respiratory or metabolic |
| acid base imbalance: respiratory alkalosis- caused from excessive loss of __; what will help this | co2; decreasing the breathing rate |
| acid base imbalance: metabolic alkalosis- excessive loss of ___ or gain of ___ will cause this; too much of what medication can cuase this | h+ or bases; antiacids; |
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