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a and p
bones and muscles test
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| skeletal system | includes all bones, cartilage in body, joints they form |
| divisions of skeletal system | axial and appendicular |
| axial skeleton | bones along longitudinal axis/midline; skull, hyoid, vertebral column, sternum, ribs, auditory ossicles |
| appendicular skeleton | Consists of the bones of the upper and lower limbs (extremities); bones that form the girdles, pelvic, and pectoral, which connect the limbs to the axial skeleton |
| skeletal system function | support, movement, protection, housing for blood cells, mineral homeostasis, triglyceride |
| types of bones | long bone, short bones, flat bones, irregular bones, sesamoid bones |
| long bone | greater in length in width, slightly curved for strength; femur, tibia, fibula, ulna |
| short bone | cube-shaped and are nearly equal length and width; carpal, tarsal |
| flat bone | thin and composed of two nearly parallel plates of compact bone tissue enclosing a layer of spongy bone tissue |
| irregular bone | complex shapes and cannot be grouped into any of the previous categories |
| sesamoid | add strength to tendons in areas of high stress and excessive wear and tear |
| common long bone structure | diaphysis, epiphysis, metaphysis, peristeum, articular cartilage, medullary cavity |
| diaphysis | long, cylindrical portion of bone |
| metaphysis | Region between the diaphysis and epiphysis-important during bone growth (epiphyseal growth plate) |
| epiphysis | Ends of the bone-either distal or proximal |
| peristeum | Membrane (epithelium and connective tissue surrounding each bone (except in cartilage areas) |
| articular cartilage | Hyaline cartilage on the ends of the bone |
| medullary cavity | Hollow area usually in diasphysis-blood vessels and yellow bone marow (fat) helps to minimize weight |
| types of surface markings | depressions and openings; processes |
| depressions/openings purpose | allow passage of blood vessels and nerves or form joints |
| processes | Projections or outgrowths that form joints or serve as attachment points for ligaments and tendons |
| fissure | narrow slit between adjacent pairs of bones allowing for passage of blood vessels or nerves |
| foramen | opening or hole |
| fossa | shallow depression |
| sulcus | groove or furrow along bone that accommodates blood vessel, nerve, or tendon |
| meatus | tube-like opening |
| types of processes that form joints | condyle, head, facet |
| condyle | large round knob at the end of a bone |
| head | rounded articular projection supported on neck |
| facet | flat smooth articular surface |
| types of processes that form attachment points | crest, epicondyle, line (linea), spinous process, tubercle, tuberosity |
| bone marrow types | red and yellow |
| red bone marrow prevalence | At birth all marrow is red bone marrow; By adulthood about 50% of all bone marrow is red; Mainly found in flat bones and in the epiphyseal ends of femur and humerus |
| red marrow characteristics | Highly vascularized connective tissue (very cellular); Reticular type of connective tissue?; Stroma of bone marrow-cellular component |
| red marrow charactistics cont'd | Provide framework for blood cells; Pluripotent stem cells (blood cell formation)-can form any of the blood cells; Sinusoids (leaky capillaries)-many holes/pores in capillary-swiss cheese like; allow newly formed cells to enter blood stream |
| red blood cell function | blood cell production (hematopoiesis)-continual replacement of blood cells |
| red bone marrow diseases | aplasitc anemia, leukemia |
| aplastic anemia | insufficient blood cell production of all cell types |
| leukemia | cancer of hematopoietic stem cell; overproduction of cellsprogenitor doesn’t fully differentiate; can’t get to end point; enhanced proliferation-immature cells populate blood |
| yellow bone marrow location | In adulthood about 50% of all bone marrow is yellow; Found mainly in medullary cavities of blood cells |
| yellow marrow characteristics | Stroma still present but instead of blood cell formation, there are only adipocytes |
| yellow marrow functions | i. fat storage ii. can convert back to red bone marrow when needed (traumatic injury) |
| skull | 8 cranial bones form cranial cavity; 14 facial bones; immovable joints called sutures keep together |
| Hyoid bone | only one not articulating with another bone; attachment point for muscles of neck, pharynx, and tongue |
| Vertebral column | made of vertebrae; each vertebral body separated by intervertebral disc; shape changes within column |
| vertebral column bones | 7 cervicle (c1-c7); 12 thoratic (t1-712); 5 lumbar (l1-l5) sacrum (5 fused); coccyx (4 fused) |
| sternum | flat anterior bone; 3 fused parts (maunbrium, body, xiphoid process |
| thoratic cages | 12 ribs (m and f) |
| vertebrosternal | 1-7 costal cartilage attaches to sternum; true |
| vertebrochondrial | 8-10; costal cartilage attaches to other costal cartilage; false |
| vertebral | 11-12 floating; false |
| pectoral girdle bones | clavicle and scapula |
| Upper limb | humerus, ulna (medial; u shaped trochlear notch), radius (lateral), carpals, metacarpals, phalanges |
| pelvic girdle | 2 os coxa (pelvic bones); illium, ischium, pubis |
| lower limb | femur, patella, tibia (shin, weight bearing); fibula, tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges |
| joint classifications | structurally (fibrous, cartilaginous, sunovial)and functionally (synarthrosis and amphiarthrosis) |
| fibrous joints | suture-only betweem bones of skull; immovable; sundesmoses-ligamentous joint with some distance between articulating surfaces-limited movement |
| cartilaginous joints | synchondroses-made of hyaline cartilage symphyses-broad flat disc of fibrocartilage connects bones-slight movement |
| synovial joint | main joints allow for movement-functionally diarthroses |
| synarthrosis joint | immovable joint; e.g. skull |
| amphiarthrosis joint | slightly movable joint; e.g. between fibula nd tibia |
| diarthrosis | freely movable joint |
| bone renewal | bone formation begins before birth, but at any time about 5% is being remodeled-continual renewal |
| renewal rate | slower in compact than spongy; triggered by exercise, diet, sedentary lifestyle, changes in hormone balance |
| bone features | new bone tends to be more resistant to fracture and stress than old; as a person ages, bone remodeling slows and can't keep pace with destruction |
| osteoporosis | example of bone (most notably spongy) destruction is greater than formation |
| ossification/osteogenesis | bone formation; initial formation in embryo, growth in infancy, remodeling in adulthood, repair of fractures |
| bone tissue formation parts | 1. protein fiber component (collagen, act as scaffold for ground substance) 2. ground substance (crystallized mineral salts) |
| ground substance | A number of calcium containing molecules or mineral salts like calcium phosphate and ; calcium hydroxide form crystals of hydroxyapatite |
| ground substance 2 | Hydroxyapatite combines with calcium carbonate and other important ions-further crystallization and hardening creates ground substance surrounding collagen fibers |
| calcification | Requires presence of collagen fibers Calcification initiated by osteoblasts |
| lysosome function in bone destruction | makes proteinase (“lysis”-to break apart); proteinase breaks down other proteins joins with plasma membrane, spills out proteinase outside cell |
| golgi body function | makes proteins |
| bone tissue resorption | see ppt |
| blood calcium homeostasis | Normal blood Ca2+ levels range between 9-11 mg/100 mL of blood Hypercalcaemia-15-16 mg/100mL-can cause coma or cardiac arrest Hypocalcaemia-lower than 9 mg/100 mL |
| blood calcium homeostasis 2 | Clearly the tolerated range of blood calcim levels is very narrow Thus the body has homeostatic mechanisms to maintain this balance Bone destruction (liberation of calcium) and formation (calcium uptake) is 1 mechanism |
| blood calcium homeostasis 3 | Stimulus: forget to take multivitamin low blood calcium levels (hypo) 1. receptor (cells of parathyroid gland) detects lowered blood Ca2+ 2. control center (parathyroid gland increases secretion of PTH (parathyroid hormone) |
| blood calcium homeostasis 4 | 3. effectors- a) stimulates formation of calcitriol; b) increases osteoclast mediated bone destruction together these increase blood calcium (Ca2+) levels change read by receptor DYNAMIC |
| blood homeostasis with negative stimulus | 1. Receptor (cells of the thyroid gland-detection of elevated blood Ca2+ levels) 2. Control center (thyroid gland increases secretion of CT (Calcitonin) |
| blood homeostasis with negative 2 | 3. Effectors: a) stimulates osteoblasts-Ca2+ uptake and deposition into blood b) inhibits osteoclast mediated bone destruction both decrease blood calcium (Ca2+) levels; new levels read by receptor |
| bone tissue resortion | Bicarbonate (HCO3-) is a weak acid and acts as one of the principal blood buffers; if blood pH is becoming more acidic then there are more free H=s roaming around…HCO3- has the capacity to take in some of the excess H+s |
| blood tissue resorption | Blood pH can regulate osteoclast function If pH of blood becomes more acidic, osteoclasts become more active = more bicarbonate (HCO3-) production Blood buffering is enhanced to help maintain normal blood pH (7.1-7.4) |
| Tissue of Bone | Osseus (bone)-spongy and compact; periosteum; cartilage (hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage); blood vessels; nervous |
| osseous tissue cells | osteogenic, osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts |
| osteogenic cells | Can proliferate (undergo cell division) and Differentiates into osteoblasts Under certain conditions can become chondrogenic cells (cartilage forming) Most active during the period(s) of intense bone growth |
| osteoblasts | Responsible for synthesis of proteins of ECM of bone tissue; Arranged similar to epithelial layer, but are not true epithelium Become enveloped in ECM they secrete, when fully surrounded, osteoblast becomes an osteocute-the space the cell occupies=lacuna |
| osteocytes | Mature bone cells derived from osteoblasts Trapped in calcified ECM of bone tissue, but still maintain contact with neighboring osteocytes through canaliculi (little channels) Secrete substances necessary for bone maintenance |
| osteoclast | Do not come from osteogenic cell Derived or comes from bone marrow cells-big, motile, multinucleated (as many as 50 nuclei) cells Break done bone (e.g. calcified ECM of bone) |
| spongy osseseos tissue | Does not refer to texture, but appearance 2 No osteons; Reduces overall weight of bone, but maintains stength; trabeculae |
| trabeculae | Main site of bone reabsorption (osteoclasts) Site of bone remodeling (osteoblasts and osteogenic cells) Appear randomly arranged, but not the case Oriented along lines of stress-provide reinforcement to suited to the individual (differs person to perso |
| perforating canals | allow blood vessels and nerves to enter bone from periosteum |
| compact bone | perforating canals, osteon, concentric lamellae, lacunae, osteocytes |
| osteon | repeating concentrical (circular) unit of cells (osteocytes) and calcified ECM surrounding a central canal (haversian) |
| concentric lamellae | rings of calcified ECM; like rings of a tree trunk |
| lacunae | Similar to cartilage, small spaces in which osteocytes reside |
| osteocytes | maintain contact with each other through canaliculi tiny canals |
| Periostium | 1. Surround external bone surface whenever it is not covered by cartilage 2. 2 Layers Outer: non-calcified, dense, irregular connective tissue Inner: cellular layer-osteogenic cells |
| Periostium function | protection of bone, aids in fracture repair, serves as attachment points for ligaments and tendons |
| Medullary Cavity | “Open” cavity, mostly in long bones Nutrient blood vessels Mostly yellow bone marrow (adipocytes-fat cells) and some red bone marrow (blood cell production) The clavicle is the only long bone that does not have a medullary cavity |
Created by:
kmeredith
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