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VP Exam 1
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Milieu Interior | An idea developed by Claude Bernard that a constant internal environment is the condition for a free and independent life. |
| Homeostasis | The maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment (at both the cellular and organismal levels). This is an active process (requiring energy) in which equilibrium is never achieved. |
| Structural Dynamism | States that the chemical structures of a living organism are constantly remodeled, such that there are no absolute boundaries between an animal and its environment. |
| Avoider | An organism that maintains a set point by avoiding certain environmental conditions. |
| Conformer | An organism that maintains a set point by matching certain environmental conditions. |
| Regulator | An organism that maintains a set point by altering internal body function. |
| Developmental Acclimatization | Exposure to a certain environment during critical periods of childhood serve to establish a set point. |
| Acclimatization | A chronic response of an individual to an environment that has changed in NUMEROUS ways. -permanent/long-lasting -cyclic (seasonal, circadian) |
| Acclimation | A chronic response of an individual to an environment that has changed in a CONTROLLED manner. |
| Positive Feedback | A deviation from the set point is TEMPORARILY reinforced, ESCALATING changes. Ex: head pressure on cervix stimulates pituitary secretion of oxytocin, which stimulates contractions and pushes the fetus toward the cervix. |
| Negative Feedback | A deviation from the set point is OPPOSED, bringing the system back to the set point. Ex: secretin inhibits stomach activity. |
| Feed-forward regulation | The body anticipates a deviation from a set point, and thus alters function in order to minimize the deviation. Ex: when a regular sleep/wake schedule is established, a release of stress hormone cortisol occurs before waking. |
| Proteins | Made up of amino acids which cannot be stored. 10-30% of cell mass. 10% of a.a.s used each day come from food. Adult humans re-synthesize 2-3% of protein per day. May be denatured by pH, T, cofactors. |
| Lipids | Used for energy (troglycerides/ketone bodies), insulation, flotation, shock-absorption, membranes, hormones. |
| Carbohydrate (monosaccharide) | Glucose: most common form of exchanged and stored cellular energy; metabolized in Krebs cycle. |
| Carbohydrate (starch) | Glucose stored in liver and skeletal muscle (for quick response muscle contractions) of ANIMALS. |
| Carbohydrate | Temperature stable, easy to make: CO2 + H2O ("carbon water") Ratio: CH2O. |
| Carbohydrate (cellulose) | Glucose stored as cellulose in PLANTS. Cannot be digested by animals. |
| Attached Carbohydrate | Glycolipids: cell signaling/recognition (immune response) Glycoproteins: hormones desired for slow turnover |
| Heat shock proteins | Proteins that are produced after stress-induced denaturation of other proteins. |
| Protein transitions | prenatal -> nestling (post-birth) -> postweaning (mammals) |
| Fibrous vs. Globular proteins | Fibrous: used for structure, stable (low turnover rate) Globular: enzymes, specific shape, very sensitive to environment (bind with different strength at different temperatures. |
| pH | physiological: 7.4 mouth: 6.8 (headgut) stomach: 1-3 (foregut) small intestine: 8.5 (midgut) |
| Sterols | Cholesterol and its derivatives. Uses: membrane fluidity, steroid hormones, Vitamin D (Ca2+ absorption) |
| Cell Signaling | Reception: ligands act as signal Transduction: change in intracellular activity |
| Classes of Cell Signaling | Ligand gated: move ions G-prot coupled: lig bind GPCR, liberate G-protein, activate 2nd messenger to (de)phosphorylate prot -Enzyme linked: lig outside activates intracell. receptor -Intracellular receptor: lig activates receptor to bind prom. & make m |
| Animal Research Justification | curiosity, anatomy/physiology understanding, teaching, protection from potentially harmful substances, treatment/cure/prevention of disease |
| Claude Bernard | Milieu Magendie's student sympathetic regulation of blood vessels |
| Walter Cannon | Homeostasis |
| Erasistratus of Alexandria | 3rd century BC earliest known study of human anatomy "body humors" (fluids) of dead animals |
| Galen of Pergamum | Greek physician studied live pigs |
| Rene Descartes | body = machine soul = uniqueness/humanness animals = robots (feel no pain) |
| Immanuel Kant | animals exist as means, they do not have their own ends |
| Francois Magendie | first MODERN animal researcher surgery/physiology teacher public demos of dog vivisections ("live-cut") Nervous system |
| Anesthetics | Curare: immobilizes, but does not involve loss of sensation (may not be used alone today except for pain research) Ether: used for Civil War amputation. Explosive, irritates respiratory tract |
| Upton Sinclair | Author: wrote of safety issues in meat packing plants...readers were shocked of animal conditions |
| Teddy Roosevelt | Many people were dying from food Food & Drug Act: companies must label ALL contents Meat Inspection Act: concerned with sanitation in meat - prohibits poisonous dyes and preservatives in food |
| Food & Drug Act | Under Teddy Roosevelt: companies must label ALL contents of food |
| Meat Inspection Act | Concerned with sanitation in meat - prohibits poisonous dyes and preservatives in food |
| Amendment of Food & Drug Act (1912) | Banned fraudulent claims on drugs. Placed the burden of proof on the government -Must prove the drug is ineffective/dangerous AND that the seller knew |
| Lash Lure Incident | (1933) Mascara leads to ulcerated eye |
| Sulfa Drug Incident | (1937) Antibacterial dissolved in antifreeze 107 deaths |
| Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act | (1938) Burden of proof placed on manufacturer ensures efficacy/safety of product (must now be tested before going to market) -Caused a big boom in animal research |
| LD50 test | lethal dose to 50% of experimental animals -crude measure of drug lethality |
| Draize Test | Standard following Lash Lure Incident Irritants applied to eyes of restrained RABBITS |
| Animal Welfare Act of 1966 | -prevents use of stolen animals -prohibits animal fighting ventures -regulates animal use to ensure humane treatment -does NOT regulate farm animals |
| Public Health Service (PHS) policy on humane care & use of laboratory animals | -relevant experiments -appropriate species -reduce pain/distress -appropriate living conditions -trained personnel -exceptions must have external approval |
| 3 R's | Replacement: inverts, cell culture, computer models Reduction: need to retain significance (no more LD550 test) Refinement: collaboration, reduce ethical "cost" of experiment |
| Colligative Property | Properties of a solution that depend only on the number of solute particles in a given volume and are independent of the chemical nature of the solute. -Molality: 1 molal = 1 mole solute/1kg H2O -Molarity: 1 molar = 1 mole solute/1L H2O |
| Osmosis | The movement of water down its concentration gradient |
| Osmotic Pressure | Pressure generated by the osmotic movement of water between two solutions separated by a semipermeable membrane. |
| Hyposmotic | Solution that has a lower concentration of solutes than a comparison solution, and thus loses osmotic pressure as water exits the solution. |
| Hyperosmotic | Solution that has a higher concentration of solutes than a comparison solution, and thus gains osmotic pressure as water enters the solution. |
| Water intoxication (osmotic pathology) | Drinking excess water (hyposmotic compared to body tissues) = swelling (edema) |
| Drinking Ocean Water (osmotic pathology) | Ocean water (hyperosmotic relative to body tissues) causes dehydration as water moves out of tissues. |
| Intestinal Infection (Osmotic pathology) | Diarrhea: smooth intestine wall swells, transporting capacity is lost. Water moves in to the hypotonic environment and creates pressure. -loss of nutrients, dehydration |
| Tonicity | The ability of an extracellular solution to change the shape (tone) of cells by altering their internal water volume. |
| Ubiquitin proteasome System | Proteasome targets and destroys ubiquitin bound proteins. |
| Hypotonic | An external solution with a lower concentration of solutes than inside the cell (<300 mOsm);water thus moves into the cell, causing it to swell and possibly lyse. |
| Hypertonic | An external solution with a higher concentration of solutes than inside the cell (>300 mOsm);water thus moves out of the cell, causing it to crenate. |
| Isotonic | An external solution with a similar concentration of solutes as found inside the cell (≈300 mOsm); thus there is no net movement of water, and cell shape is maintained. |
| Aquaporins | Largest family of protein water channels. Allows greater osmotic movement of water than the lipid membrane |
| Freezing-Point Depression | The difference between the freezing point of a solution and the freezing point of pure water. Solutes disrupt crystalline structure of ice -1.86C / osmol/ kg |
| Water-Vapor-Pressure Depression | The difference between the vapor pressure of a solution and the vapor pressure of pure water. Water evaporates less readily when it contains particles-0.3 mmHg/ osmol/ kg |
| Diffusion | The movement of solutes down their concentration gradient. |
| Boundary layer | A region near the cell (or body) surface that has a elevated concentration of solute due to the diffusion of solute across a semipermeablemembrane. |
| Electrochemical Equilibrium | The state at which the concentration gradient of an ion across a membrane is precisely balanced by the electric potential across the membrane. |
| Vitamin | Essential organic compound needed in small quantities. |
| Mineral | Non-organic chemical (typically a metal) that is needed in small quantities. |
| Feeding | The obtaining and digestion of food. |
| Digestion | The process of splitting up ingested food molecules into smaller chemical compounds that can be absorbed. |
| Fermentation | Anaerobic digestion involving symbiotic flora in the foregut, midgut (rarely) or hindgut. |
| Absorption | Transfer of digestion products from the GI tract (external) to the blood (internal) through simple diffusion/facilitated diffusion/active transport, capitalizing on large surface area of the small intestine formed by circular folds, villi, and microvilli |
| Suspension Feeding | Feeding on objects suspended in water that are very small by comparison to the feeding animal (Ex: baleen whales) |
| Crop and Gizzard Feeding | Crop (crop sac) –Pouch in esophagus –Temporary storage of food Gizzard –Contains pebbles/sand –Grinds seeds & grains to prepare for digestion |
| Headgut | Mouth: brings food into the body. Salivary amylase breaks down sugars (pH6.8) |
| Foregut | esophagus + stomach: prepares food for digestion hydrochloric acid endopeptidase turns pepsinogen into pepsin |
| Midgut | Small intestine: primary region of digestion Pancreatic amylase and disaccharidases |
| Hindgut | large intestine + colon: condenses waste |
| Digestive Enzymes | Intralumenalenzymes –Salivary glands –Cells of stomach wall –Pancreas –Liver/Gall bladder •Membrane-associated enzymes (brush border) •Intracellular |
| Cabohydrate Digestion | Mouth: Salivary Amylase (Starches -> smaller starches/disaccharides) Small intestines: Disaccharidase (Specific disaccharides -> monosaccharides Ex: lactase) Pancreatic Amylase |
| Protein Digestive enzymes (general) | Zymogen: proenzyme activated in the lumen to not destroy cellular proteins Endopeptidase: cuts at target sequences (a.a. pairs) w/in a protein to form smaller polypeptides Exopeptidase: cuts a protein from the end to break it down into individual a.a.s |
| Lipid Digestion | Chew Stomach-none SI-emulsifying agents (bile salts) break large lipid particles into smaller lipid particles pancreatic lipase forms micelles around lipid particles, can be absorbed by SI cells, coat w/intracellular coat prot. chylomicron/exocyt-lacte |
| Foregut fermentation | specialized gut chambers in the ruminants before the stomach Functions: -synthesis of B-vitamins and essential amino acids -digestion of cellulose into short chain fatty acids -recovers nitrogen from urea to form a.a.s |
| Hindgut fermentation | Enlarged cecum or colon: -mostly herbivores: mammals, herbivorous birds, some herbivorous lizards and turtles Eating feces |
| Carbohydrate Absorption | -Sodium Glucose Transporter 1 (SGLT1) uses Na+ gradient to move glucose into the cell via secondary active transport -GLUT2 performs facilitated diffusion of glucose into the body. |
| Protein Digestion | Mouth-chewing Stomach-HCl-pH3 denatures proteins. Low pH pepsinogen (zymogen) self-activates to pepsin (endopeptidase) Small intestines: bicarb=basic. panc enzymes (trypsinogen self-activates -> trypsin, activates chymotrypsinogen and procarboxypeptidas |
| Protein Absorption | Involves a diverse set of transporters, many use cotransport with Na+, capitalizing on the sodium gradients |
| Protein digestion enzymes (specific) | stomach: pepsinogen -> pepsin (endo) Small intestines: pancreatic enzymes (trypsinogen -> chymotrypsiin, procarboxypeptidase -> carboxypeptidase (exo) |
| Hormonal Regulation of Digestion | Gastrin SI:Cholecystokinin (CCK) Secretin |
| Endocrine | substance released into the blood supply for communication between body parts. Ex: CCK |
| Exocrine | substance is moved to an external environment (GI tract) Ex: digestive enzymes, saliva, bile, bicarbonate |
| Gastrin | Digestive product from stomach->blood is stimulus for release of HCl & pepsinogen |
| Cholecystokinin (CCK) | Digestion enzyme of SI Stimulus: SI lipids/proteins, stimulates release of bile from liver/gall bladder, stimulates pancreas to release bicarb and pancreatic enzymes Responsible for satiety |
| Secretin | Digestive enzyme of SI Stimulus: SI acidity, proteins, lipids) Inhibits stomach activity (negative feedback), stimulates release of pancreatic enzymes, bicarbonate, bile from liver |
| Large Intestines (colon) | important in herbivores -absorption (mostly water) -bacterial flora (the site of hindgut fermentation) - defecation (internal sphinctor-smooth muscle, involuntary control, external sphinctor-striated muscle (voluntary control) |
| Diarrhea | Excessive watery feces Prevention Treatment: fluid replacement (glucose/salt water helps bring water into the BODY by SGLT1), reduce fluid loss |
| Lactose intolerance & Diarrhea | Some people stop producing lactase after weaning, so they no longer digest lactose. When lactose is ingested, fermentation increases, [glucose] in the large intestine is very high (lack of absorption), creating a hyperosmotic solution that brings water in |
| Infection & Diarrhea | Walls of SI swell, decreasing absorption. This causes a hyperosmotic solution in the large intestine, bringing water into the large intestine, causing large amounts of water to leave the body and pressure to build up in the large intestine |
| Energy | The capacity to increase order |
| High grade Energy | can do work chemical, electrical, mechanical |
| Low grade Energy | heat |
| Using energy | Biosynthesis (growth, biorganic materials, tissue replacement): more in young individuals Maintenance: replaces cells. More in older individuals Generation of external work (movement) |
| Metabolic Rate | rate of energy consumption (total energy consumption/TIME) (Heat+external work+energy stored)/TIME |
| Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) | metabolic cost of living (minimum needed for survival) for HOMEOTHERMS -At rest (no external work/mechanical energy), fasting (no energy expended in digestion, thermoneutral zone (comfortable temp., so that no energy is expended in warming or cooling) |
| Specific Dynamic Action (SDA) | increase in metabolic rate following digestion |
| Thermoneutral Zone | ambient temperature RANGE for an animal over which the metabolic rate will not change with changing temperature |
| Standard Metabolic Rate (SMR) | metabolic cost of living for POIKILOTHERMS at a PARTICULAR TEMPERATURE -At rest (no external work/mechanical energy), fasting (no energy expended in digestion, Constant temperature(comfortable temp., so that the animal isn't challenged too much) |
| Kilocalorie (Calorie) | Heat required to raise the temperature of 1L of water by 1 degree C 1000 calories |
| Direct Calorimetry | uses the definition of Calorie to measure Calories consumed -melting 1L of 1C ice |
| Indirect Calorimetry | O2 consumption: metabolism has direct relationship with O2 consumption (constant predictable diet) -requires a CO2 absorbant (soda lime) Material balance: comparison of chemical-energy contents of food and liquids ingested vs. that of feces and urine |
| Intraspecies comparisons of metabolic rates | Age Sex (reproductive status) Health Food intake activity level environment/season/circadian rhythm |
| Interspecies comparison of metabolic rates | Size increase = slow metabolic increase (body size:metabolism not prop.) -HR and breathing rate increase with high met. -chemicals: meds metabolize fast and toxins accumulate fast in sml animals (% body weight) environ. impact: sml animal eat WAY more |
| Conduction | Heat transfer by physical contact |
| Convection | Adjacent heat transfer via fluid (faster heat transfer due to loss of boundary) |
| Evaporation | Fast heat removal requiring a lot of energy and thereby removing a lot of heat. |
| Thermal Radiation | Heat from the sun |
| Poikilothermy | Refers to the ability of an animal to SURVIVE at a VARIETY of internal body temperatures. |
| Ectothermy | Refers to the influence of the ENVIRONMENT on the internal body temperature of an animal. |
| Behavioral thermoregulation | maintain a relatively constant internal temperature via certain behaviors (both homeotherms and poikilotherms) |
| Eurythermal | Refers to poikilotherms who can function over a wide range of internal (and external) temperatures. |
| Stenothermal | Refers to poikilotherms who can function over a narrow range of internal (and external) temperatures. |
| Acute Physiological Temperature Response | Increased temperature initially increases enzyme activity and metabolism |
| Chronic Physiological Temperature Response | Increased production of enzymes that are better suited to an external change. May occur through acclimation or acclimatization |
| Evolutionary Response | -enzyme-substrate affinity varies greatly between the warm-water goby and an antarctic fish -mechanisms for surviving freezing temperatures (production of antifreeze compounds, supercooling, freezing tolerance) |
| Antifreeze Compounds | Colligative: increased particle concentration leads to freezing point depression Noncolligative: ex - flounder produces glycoproteins that disrupt water organization & crystallization |
| Supercooling | Cooling of a solution below its freezing point without the formation of ice. Ice-nucleating agents must be not be present in order for this to occur |
| Tolerance of Freezing | A short-term sol'n to freezing temps that encourages formation of pure ice outside of the cell, thereby increasing particle conc. near the ice (just outside the cell). Water then moves out of the cell by osmosis, causing increased [particle] in the cell. |
| Ice-nucleating agents | Particles that allow ice crystallization and act as foci for freezing initiation |
| Typical core body temperatures | Placental mammal: 37C Birds: 39C circadian rhythms cause a 1.5-2C increase during active phase *peripheral body Ts are not as tightly regulated, and are more subject to variation |
| Hypothalamus | Region of the brain that controls much of homeostasis –often receives input from peripheral temperature receptors or may directly detect temperature |
| Posterior region of the hypothalamus | Region of hypothalamus that is stimulated by cold and initiates the cold response (goosebumps, shivering, SA reduction, behavioral regulation). Damage causes a loss in cold response or detection, resulting in lack of both autonomic and conscious response. |
| Anterior region of the hypothalamus | Region of hypothalamus stimulated by heat & initiates warmth response (sweat, vasodilation, muscle relax, behavioral reg). Damage = loss in warmth response or detection, resulting in lack of both autonomic and conscious response. PROBLEM for homeotherms! |
| TNZ expansion (endotherms) | Insulation -Fat -pilomotor response: fur -ptilomotor response: feathers Vasomotor response: change in blood flow to the skin postural response: individual or group |
| Fever | -increased metabolic rate, decreases O2 carrying capacity of HbA, which is harmful to bodily organs -INCREASES the set point (results in a cold response even above the normal set point. -fever breaks (set point reduced to 37C), HEAT response inititates |
| Responding to temperatures ABOVE the TNZ | Sweating, Panting, Gular fluttering, Active evaporation |
| Active evaporation | -sweat increases cutaneous evap 50-fold, Na+/Cl- loss may be a problem -panting reduces CO2 loss (which would otherwise lead to a problematic decrease in bicarbonate buffer,& cause a dramatic change in pH, leading to decreased O2 transport capacity) |
| Responding to temperatures BELOW the TNZ | Thermogenic mechanisms (shivering, non-shivering thermogenesis) Heat conservation |
| Gular fluttering | rapid up/down oscillation of mouth cavity floor to increase rate of evaporative cooling by increasing air flow over moist membranes in the mouth. |
| Thermogenic mechanisms | intentionally break chemical bonds to liberate heat and increase heat production 4-fold |
| Heat Conservation | regional heterothermy, countercurrent exchange |
| Shivering | high frequency unsynchronized contractions and relaxations of skeletal muscle motor units |
| Non-shivering thermogenesis | brown fat contains many mitochondria which results in high metabolism -uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation: mitochondira don't make ATP, but instead make wasteful energy (heat) |
| Regional Heterothermy | Certain regions of the body exhibit different thermal relations than other regions. These regions are typically appendages, and have a wider temperature range |
| Countercurrent Exchange | vessels parallel & adjacent with blood flow in opposite directions Heat from the artery loses heat to environment, some heat lost to be absorbed by the vessel traveling toward the body, so blood returning to the body isn't as cold |
| Neuron | Excitable cells that change voltage. Produced prenatally. |
| Glial ("glue") Cells | Support cells produced postnatally oligodendrocytes, schwann cells, astrocytes, microglial cells 1/2 of brain volume 10 glial cells:1 neuron |
| Oligodendrocytes | branched glial cells that form myelin in the Central Nervous System (CNS) |
| Schwann Cells | Forms myelin in Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) -each neuron has many |
| Astrocytes | CNS -smallest, most common cells -form blood-brain barrier |
| Microglial Cells | CNS -phagocytic (immune system of brain) |
| Soma | Cell body (contains ER. Golgi, Nucleus, etc.) |
| Dendrites | Receive stimuli Short, branched receptive extensions from Soma |
| Axon | Conduct stimulus (highway for signal branched at the end) |
| Presynaptic terminal | makes contact with the target and releases neurotransmitters |
| Afferent Neurons | Sensory neurons, meaning they conduct action potentials TO CNS |
| Efferent Neurons | Motor neurons (skeletal, glands, etc.), meaning they conduct action potentials FROM the CNS |
| Interneurons | Transmit information BETWEEN neurons and are contained within the CNS |
| Capacitance | The ability to separate charges. In neurons, the lipid membrane maintains the ion concentration gradient. (PE) |
| Conductance | The ability to allow current to cross a membrane. In neurons, current is allowed open by ion channels. (KE) |
| Resistance | measurement of a membrane's impermeability to ions; inverse of conductance. In neurons, resistance is enabled by closed ion channels. |
| Ion Channels | open and close with stimulation facilitated diffusion creates current |
| Ion transporters | Bind to ions, active transport (energy to move against concentration gradient). Achieve the concentration gradient (capacitance) that is exploited by ion channels (Ex: Na+/K+ Pump) |
| Ion Concentrations | Intracellular: Na+(12) K+(145) Extracellular: Na+(155) K+(4) |
| Sodium-Potassium Pump | ATP binds 3 intracellular Na+ Transports out 3 Na+, brings in 2 K+ Separates charge (increases capacitance) and builds up a charge inequality |
| Potential | Measurement of a charge difference (voltage) across a lipid membrane that is determined by ion concentrations (capacitance) and ion currents (conductance vs. resistance) -resting -equilibrium -graded -action |
| Resting Potential | The charge difference in a resting cell. By definition, the outside of the cell is 0mV |
| Equilibrium Potential | For a PARTICULAR ION, the potential at which there would be NO NET MOVEMENT across the membrane -determined by ion concentrations (capacitance, electrochemical gradient) and is completely independent of actual currents (theoretical potential) |
| Electrochemical equilibrium | -concentration gradient opposes electrical gradient -electrical gradient would drive Na+ into the cell, but majority of the charge accumulates at the border of the cell membrane, repelling the Na+ AWAY from the cell |
| Nernst Equation | To calculate equilibrium potential E(x)=61/charge * log([X]o/[X]i) |
| Goldman Equation | To calculate resting potential Vm=61 log(Pk[K+]o + Pna[Na+]o)/ ((Pk[K+]i + Pna[Na+]i) |
| Membrane Potential | Determined by equilibrium potential of each ion and conductance of each ion |
Created by:
Medgbert
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