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Huge Biology Test
Thermoregulation and Reproduction
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Homeostasis | Ability to regulate internal environment |
| Q10 Effect | A measure of the multiple by which a particular enzymatic reaction or overall metabolic process increases with a 10 degrees C increase in body temperature |
| Give and example of the Q10 effect | If the rate of glycogen hydrolysis in a frog is 2.5 times greater at 30 degrees C than at 20 degrees C, then the Q10 for that reaction is 2.5 |
| Thermoregulation | The balance of heat budget over time in such a way that the rate of heat gain exactly matches the rate of heat loss |
| What four processes cause heat exchange? | Conduction, convection, radiation, evaporation |
| Conduction | The direct transfer of thermal motion (heat) between molecules in direct contact with each other. Heat is always conducted from an object of higher temperature to one of lower temperature. |
| Convection | The transfer of heat by the movement of air or liquid past a surface. |
| Example of conduction | A lizard can elevate a low body temperature with heat conducted from a warm rock |
| Example of convection | A breeze contributes to heat loss from the surface of animal with dry skin. circulating blood moves heat from an animal’s warm body core to the cooler extremities such as legs. |
| What is the "wind chill factor" and example of? | How convection compounds the harshness of low temperatures by increasing the rate of heat transfer. |
| Radiation | The emission of electromagnetic waves by all objects warmer than absolute zero. It transfers heat between objects that are not in direct contact. |
| Example of radiation | An animal absorbs heat radiating from the sun. |
| Evaporation | The removal of heat from the surface of a liquid that is losing some of its molecules as gas. Evaporation of water from an animal has a strong cooling effect. It can only occur if the surrounding air is not saturated with water molecules. |
| Ecotherm | Has such a low metabolic rate that the amount of heat that it generates is too small to have much effect on body temperature. Body temperatures are determined by the temperature of the surrounding environment. |
| What types of animals are ecotherms? | Most invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, and reptiles. |
| Endotherm | High metabolic rate generates enough heat to keep body temperature substantially warmer than the environment. Many endotherms maintain high and very stable internal temperature even as temperature of their surrounding fluctuate. |
| What types of animals are endotherms? | Mammals, birds, some fishes, a few reptiles, and numerous insect species. |
| What are some advantages of endothermy? | High levels of aerobic metabolism, long endurance of physical activity, maintain stable body temperatures in fluctuating environment temperatures, cools body in hot environments. |
| Who needs to have more food; endotherms or ecotherms? Why? | Endotherms because they have a higher metabolic rate. |
| Why do animals need to manage heat budget? | The rates of heat gain must be equal to rates of heat loss. If the heat budget gets out of balance, the animal will either become warmer or colder. |
| How do animals manage heat budget? (4 ways) | Adjusting the rate of heat exchange between the animal and its environment, cooling by evaporative heat loss, changing the rate of metabolic heat production, behavioral responses |
| How do animals adjust the rate of heat exchange between itself and its surroundings? | Insulation and adaptions to the circulatory system including countercurrent heat exchange, vasodilation and vasoconstriction. |
| Vasodilation | Expansion of the diameter of superficial blood vessels, elevates blood flow in the skin and typically increases heat transfer to a cool environment. |
| Vasoconstriction | Reduces blood flow and heat transfer by decreasing the diameter of superficial vessels. |
| Countercurrent Heat Exchange | A circulatory adaptation that is a special arrangement of blood vessels to help trap heat in the body core and reduces heat loss. This countercurrent arrangement facilitates heat transfer from arteries to veins along the entire length of the blood vessels |
| Cooling by evaoprative heat loss | Terrestrial animals lose water by evaporation across the skin and when they breathe. Water absorbs considerable heat when it evaporates. |
| Changing the rate of metabolic heat production | Many species of birds and mammals can greatly increase their metabolic heat production when exposed to cold. |
| Behavioral responses | Changed in posture, moving about in their environment, hibernation, migration to a more suitable climate. |
| What are some adaptations for endotherms? | High metablic rate (metabolic heat replaces heat loss through environment), nonshivering thermogenesis (certain hormones increase their activity to create heat instead of ATP), insulation, vasodilation and vasoconstriction, blubber in marine animals |
| How do most amphibians lose body heat? | Evaporation from their moist body surfaces |
| What help reptiles and amphibians to maintain a satisfactory temperature? | Behavioral adaptations: move to shady areas in heat, move to sunny areas in cold |
| Thermoconformers | Mostly aquatic, most fishes, Internal temp. only 1-2 degrees C above surroundings. Any metabolic heat generated by swimming muscles is lost to the surrounding water when blood passes through the gills. |
| How do endothermic fishes regulate body temperatures? | Some specialized endothermic fishes, mainly large, powerful swimmers such as bluefin tuna, swordfish, and great white sharks use countercurrent heat exchangers to trap heat in the muscles, digestive tract, eyes, or brain. |
| How do invertebrates regulate body temperature? | Usually in the same way as ectotherms. |
| What type of animals are flying insects such as bees and moths? | Endothermic |
| How does thermoregulation occur in the hawk moth? | The powerful flight muscles of the hawk moth can elevate body temperature to warm up before taking off. By contracting the flight muscles in synchrony, considerable heat is generated, but little movement. Chemical reactions and cellularrespiration speedup |
| How do honeybees regulate heat? | Social behavior. In cold weather they increase heat production and huddle together, thereby retaining heat. In warm weather, fanning of their wings promotes evaporation and convection. |
| How to mammals regulate heat? | Complex system facilitated by feedback mechanisms. Nerve cells that control thermoregulation, as well as those controlling other aspects of homeostasis, are concentrated in the hypothalamus of the brain. |
| Where are temperature sensing cells located in endotherms? | Temperature sensing cells are located in the skin, the hypothalamus, and other body regions. |
| Acclimatization | Adjustment to a new range of environmental temperatures over a period of days or weeks. |
| How does acclimatization work in endotherms? | In birds and mammals, acclimation often includes adjusting the amount of insulation - by growing a thicker fur coat in the winter and shedding it in the summer - and sometimes by varying the capacity for metabolic heat production seasonally. |
| How does acclimatization work in ectotherms? | In contrast, acclimatization in ectotherms is a process of compensating for changes in body temperature through adjustments in physiology and temperature tolerance. |
| Give an example of an acclimatized ectotherm | winter-acclimated catfish can only survive temperatures as high as 28 degrees C, but summer-acclimated fish can survive temperatures to 36 degrees C |
| Cryoprotectants | Some ectotherms that experience subzero body temperatures protect themselves by producing “antifreeze” compounds that prevent ice formation in the cells |
| Rapid adjustments to temperature changes | Within min., cells grown in culture produce stress-induced proteins, including heat-shock proteins in response to marked increases in temperature or other sources of stress |
| How do endotherms deal with severe temperature changes? | Torpor and hibernation. B/c metabolic rates at these temperatures are so low, the energetic demands are tremendously reduced, allowing organisms to survive for long periods of time on energy stored in body tissues or as food catched in a burrow. |
| Torpor | A physiological state in which activity is low and metabolism decreases |
| Hibernation | Long-term torpor that evolved as an adaptation to winter cold and food scarcity |
| Ground Squirrels | They are active during the spring and summer. By hibernation, the squirrels avoid severe cold and reduce the amount of energy they need to survive the winter, when their normal food of grasses and seeds is not available. They rouse for a few hours sometim |
| Estivation | Summer torpor, characterized by slow metabolism and inactivity, enables animals to survive long periods of high temperatures and scarce water supplies. |
| What triggers hibernation and estivation? | Hibernation and estivation are often triggered by seasonal changes in day length. As the days shorten, some animals store food in their burrows, while other eat huge quantities of food and fatten dramatically. |
| Daily torpor | All endotherms that use daily torpor are relatively small, with high metabolic rates, and high energy consumption when active. An animal’s daily cycle of activity and torpor appears to be a built-in rhythm controlled by the biological clock. |
| Asexual reproduction | Involves the formation of individuals whose genes all come from one parent (there is no fusion of sperm and egg). |
| Sexual reproduction | The formation of offspring by the fusion of haploid gametes (ovum is the female gamete, spermazooan is the male gamete). Sexual reproduction increases genetic variation among offspring. |
| How do invertebrates reproduce? | Fission or budding |
| Fission | Asexual reproduction in which a parent separates into two or more approximately equal sized individuals. |
| Budding | Asexual reproduction in which the offspring split off from parent. |
| Gemmules of sponges | An example of a type of asexual reproduction that involves the release of specialized cells that can grow into new individuals. |
| Fragmentation | The breaking of a body into several pieces, some of which develop into complete adults. Requires regeneration of lost body parts. |
| What are some advantages of asexual reproduction? | Can reproduce without needing to find a mate, can have numerous offspring in a short period of time, allows for the perpetuation of successful genotypes. |
| What is an example of an animal that alternates between asexual and sexual reproduction? | Daphnia may reproduce under parenthogenesis under favorable conditions and sexually during times of environmental stress. |
| Parthenogenesis | The process by which an unfertilized egg developes into haploid adult. |
| Hermaphroditism | One individual is functional as both a male and a female. Some self-fertilize. |
| Sequential Hermaphroditism | An individual reverses its sex during its lifetime |
| Protogynous | Female first sequential hermaphroditism |
| Protandrous | Male first sequential hermaphroditism |
| Internal Fertilization | Requires cooperation, two mates |
| External Fertilization | Eggs area shed and fertilized in the environment. Requires a moist habitat that will protect developing eggs from dessication and heat stress. Specific mating behaviors assure that sperm and egg will be in the same place at the same time. |
| Pheromones | Chemical signals relelased by one organism that affect the behavior of other individuals of the same species. Many act as male attractants. |
| Spermatheca | A sac in many female organisms that stores sperm for many years |
| What 5 hormones are involved in the menstrual and ovarian cycles? | Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRD), Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH), Lutenizing Hormone (LH), Estrogens, Progesterone |
| Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone | Secreted by the hypothalamus |
| Follicle-stimulating hormone | Secreted by the anterior pituitary |
| Lutenizing hormone | secreted by the anterior pituitary |
| Estrogens | Secreted by the ovaries |
| Progesteron | Secreted by the ovaries |
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