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BIO 251 Lec Exam 2
BIO 251 Lecture Exam 2
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What are spcialized cells or multicellular structures that COLLECT INFORMATION and stimulate neurons to send impulses along sensory fibers to the brain? | Sensory receptors |
| What is a feeling that occurs when the brain becomes aware of a sensory impulse? | Sensation |
| What do you call a person's view of a stimulus; the way the brain INTERPRETS the information? | Perception |
| If sensory receptors detect tissue damage and the sensation is pain, what would be the perception? | unpleasant |
| Sensory receptors have to convert the sensation to what kind of signal in order for it to be sent to the brain? | an electrical signal |
| Do sensory receptors have an unlimited range of sensation? | no, you can overwhelm any kind of receptor system in the body |
| What are the 5 types of receptors? | chemoreceptors, pain receptors, thermoreceptors, mechanoreceptors and photoreceptors |
| What kind of receptors respond to changes in chemical concentrations e.g. smell and taste? | chemoreceptors (when a chamical arrives it causes a protein to change shape) |
| What kind of receptors respond to tissue damage? | pain receptors (they may use chemical signals, damaged cells release chamicals that cause pain) |
| What kind of receptors respond to changes in temperature? | thermoreceptors |
| What kind of receptors respond to mechanical forces? | mechanoreceptors |
| What kind of receptors respond to light? | photoreceptors |
| Stimulation of a receptor causes a local change in what? | its membrane |
| Is there a mechanism that can reflect the intensity of the stimulation? | yes, a graded electrical current is generated that reflects the intensity of the stimulation |
| If the receptor is part of a neuron, the membrane potential may generate what? | an action potential |
| What happens if the receptor is not part of a neuron? | the receptor potential must be TRANSFERRED to a neuron to trigger an action potential |
| Do you have to meet a threshold of stimulus for a stimulus to be recognized? | yes |
| What do you call the ability to ignore unimportant stimuli (e.g. the feeling of wearing clothes, or the sound of the air conditioner)? | sensory adaptation (sensory impulses become less frequent and may cease. A stronger stimulus is required to trigger impulses) |
| What do you call a signal going into a nerve? | a neurotransmitter |
| Sensory adaptation works in one of two ways, what are the two possible mechanisms? | peripheral adaptation (at the receptor) and central adaptation (along the CNS pathway leading to the cerebral cortex) |
| What part of the brain identifies what is important and brings it to your attention? | reticular formation |
| What does it mean that living things are able to adapt to their environment? | they can respond to changes in the environment |
| Where do you find somatic senses? | they are distributed throughout the body (senses associated with skin, muscles, joints and viscera) |
| Somatic senses are classified by location. What are the three types of somatic senses? | exteroceptive senses, proprioceptive senses, and visceroceptive senses |
| Which somatic senses are associated with the body surface (touch, pressure, temperature and pain)? | exteroceptive senses |
| Which somatic senses are associated with changes in muscles and tendons? (changes in body position) | proprioceptive senses (found in all skeletal muscle) |
| Which somatic senses are associated with changes in viscera? | visceroceptive senses (usually found in the membranes around the organ) |
| What are the 2 major types of senses? | somatic and special |
| Which senses are only found in the head? | special senses |
| What are the characteristics of free nerve endings? | only nerve endings found in the surface, common in epithelial tissues, and detect touch and pressure |
| What are the characteristics of tactile/Meisner's corpuscles? | found on lips and thick skin (hairless portions of skin) and detect light touch |
| What are the characteristics of lamellated/pacinian corpuscles? | they are commonly found in deeper, subcutaneous tissues, tendons and ligaments. They detect heavy pressure. They are surrounded by a multilayer capsule found in deep parts of the dermis or hypodermis. |
| What does light touch do in a tactile/Meisner corpuscle? | it will cause protein to change shape and ion gates to open and close |
| Why do lamellated/Pacinian corpuscles have a multi-layer capsule? | so that it will take more pressure to change the shape of the capsule to create a sensation |
| What are the characteristics of warm receptors? | they are sensitive to temperatures over 25C/77F and become onresponsive to temperatures above 45C/113F |
| What are the characteristics of cold receptors? | They are sensitive to temperatures between 10C/50F and 20C/68F and there are 2X's as many cold receptors as warm receptors |
| Do we sense temperatures between 20C and 25C? | no |
| At what temperatures do pain receptors respond? | below 10C/50F and above 45C/113F |
| What type of nerve endings sense pain? | free nerve endings |
| Does nervous tissue of the brain have pain receptors? | no |
| What type of stimulus are capable of producing pain sensations? | tissue damage, chemical exposure, mechanical forces or extremes in temperature |
| Do pain sensors preform adaptation? | no peripheral adaptation, but brain may choose to inhibit pain with endorphins and enkepkalons (not sure about spelling) |
| What causes a tension headache? | muscles of the head |
| What causes a migraine headache? | spontaneous firing of bundles of neurons causing vasculature to expand and contract. |
| What can be cuased when sensory impulses from 2 different regions follow a common nerve pathway tot he brain? | referred pain |
| Where can pain from the heart be referred to? | left arm and middle of the back |
| Where can pain from the liver and the gall bladder be referred to? | right shoulder and lower back |
| How does phantom pain work? | the receptors are gone but the nerve fibers are still present. The neurons on the cerebral cortex miss the sensation information and fire inappropriately and they create sensations that don't exist |
| What part of the brain allows person to be aware of pain? | Thalamus |
| What are the three pain inhibiting substances (inhibit the release of substance P)? | enkephalins (spelled correctly), serotonin, and endorphins |
| What part of the brain judges the intensity of pain and locates the source of the pain? | cerebral cortex |
| What part of the brain produces motor response to pain and produces emotional response to pain? | cerebral cortex |
| What kind of receptors send information to the CNS concerning lengths and tensions of muscles? (also sense where body is in space) | proprioceptors |
| What are the two main kinds of stretch receptors? | muscle spindles (in skeletal muscles) and Golgi tendon organs (in tendons) The brain determines the condition of these receptors to know the position of every part of the body |
| What kind of test is based on proprioception? | sobriety test |
| What are the characteristics of muscle spindles? | they are related to muscle fibers but are different in shape and are mixed in with muscle fibers. They detect lengthwise and widthwise stretch when muscles relax and contract. Send signal to brain that muscle is stretched |
| When are tendons stretched when the muscle is contracted or when the muscles relaxes? | relaxes |
| Are muscle spindles found in every skeletal muscle? | yes |
| Do cranial nerves have proprioceptor fibers? | the motor ones do |
| Once again where are special senses found? | only found in the head |
| What are special senses? | they are sensory receptors that are within large, complex sensory organs in the head (eyes, nose, mouth and ears) |
| Which two senses work by using chemoreceptors? | smell and taste |
| Which two special senses work using mechanoreceptors? | hearing and equilibrium |
| Which special sense uses photoreceptors? | sight |
| What are the characteristics of olfactory receptors? | they are bipolar neurons, which are chemoreceptors and respond to chemicals dissolved in liquids. Odor has to get into mucus membranes to be detected. |
| What are the characteristics of olfactory organs? | they contain the olfactory receptors and supporting epithelial cells, they cover parts of the nasal cavity, superior nasal conchae and a portion of the nasal septum (back part of the nose around the bony parts) |
| How is olfactory tissue arranged? | cilia covers the outtermost portion, then a layer containing olfactory receptor cells and columnar epithelial cells, then the cribiform plate and finally the nerve fibers within the olfactory bulb |
| How many different odors can a human detect? | 6,000-10,000 |
| What pathway do olfactory sensations take? | they pass through the limbic system before reaching the cerebral cortex. This is why certain odors can evoke emotional responses and can be associated with memory. |
| Does the olfactory sense undergo adaptation? | yes, rapidly |
| What is meant by the term coded when describing the olfactory sense? | it means that the receptors are not very specific which allows for combinations to be used to detect different odors. |
| What are taste buds? | they are the organs of taste and include supportive epithelial cells. They are located on the papillae of the tongue, roof of the mouth linings of the cheeks and walls f the pharynx |
| Are taste buds more developed in children or adults? | children (babies can smell their mom) |
| What kind of receptors are taste receptors? | chemoreceptors |
| What are the characteristics of a teste cell? | modified epithelial cell that functions as a receptor. |
| What are taste hairs? | microvilli that protrude from taste cells. They are the sensitive parts of the taste cell |
| What is saliva's function in the sense of taste? | you can only taste things that are dissolved in saliva |
| Which sense produces most of the flavor from food? | olfactory |
| What are the 5 primary taste sensations? | sweet (carbs), sour (acids), salty (salts), bitter (many organic compounds), Umami (amino acids/beef taste/blood) |
| What does Umami mean in Japanese? | delicious |
| What kinds of foods activate pain receptors? | spicy |
| How do many poisonous substances taste? | bitter |
| What is the organ of hearing? | ear |
| What are the three major divisions of the ear? | external, middle and inner |
| What do you call the big part of the ear that collects sound waves? | the pinna or auricle |
| What do you call the triangle on the opposite side of the pinna? | tragus |
| What do you call the "tube" lined with ceruminous glands that carries sound to the tympanic membrane and terminates at the tympanic membrane? | the external auditory meatus aka external acoustic canal |
| What does the tympanic membrane do? | vibrates in response to sound waves. It vibrates with ALL sound waves, but not all sound waves can be interpreted. |
| What type of glands are ceruminous glands? | apocrine |
| Can microbes get stuck in ear wax? | yes. I think Hopkin mentioned this as a protective feature to keep microbes from travelling beyond the earwax. |
| What part of the ear lies just inside the temporal bone? | the middle ear |
| For the tympanic membrane to vibrate correctly, how must pressure be distributed on either side of the membrane? | it must be equal |
| What does the word ossicles mean? | little bones |
| What is the tympanic cavity? | air-filled space in the temporal bone |
| What are the names of the three auditory ossicles? | malleus, incus and stapes |
| What do the auditory ossicles do? | vibrate in response to tympanic membrane |
| Which ossicle is closest to tympanic membrane? | malleus |
| Which ossicle looks like a stirrup? | stapes |
| What is the oval window? | a membrane across the opening in the wall of the tympanic cavity |
| What vibrates against the oval window to move fluids in the inner ear? | the stapes |
| Where is the auditory tube? | it connects the middle ear to the throat |
| What does the auditory tube do? | it helps maintain equal pressure on both sides of the tympanic membrane |
| Is the auditory tube usually open or usually closed? | usually closed by a valve like flap in the throat, can be opened by swallowing, chewing or yawning. A sore throat can chage pressure and affect hearing, add bacterial and you get an ear infection. |
| What muscle is attached to the malleus? | the tensor tympany muscle |
| What muscle is attached to the stapes? | the stapedius |
| What is the function of the tensor tympany muscle and the stapedius? | to dampen the sounds from inside the head |
| What division of the ear is inside the labyrinth and is completely surrounded by bone? | the inner ear |
| What are the three parts of the labyrinth? | the cochlea, the semicircular canals and the vestibule |
| What is the cochlea's primany function? | hearing |
| What is the primary function of the semicircular canals? | equilibrium |
| What is the primary function of the vestibule? | equilibrium |
| Where is the vestibule? | it is an open area between the cochlea and the semicircular canals |
| The cochlea is a complicated coiled canal, what three "tubes" run through the cochlea? | the scala vestibuli, the scala tympani and the cochlear duct (the scala vestibuli and scale tymapani are connected at the end and form a continuous loop) |
| Where is the scala vestibuli? | it is the upper compartment. It leads from the oval window to the apex of the spiral . It is part of the bony labyrinth |
| Where is the scale tympani? | it is the lower compartment. It extends from the apex of the cochlea to the round window. It is also part of the bony labyrinth. |
| What and where is the cochlear duct? | it is a portion of the membranous labyrinth (between two membranes) in the cochlea. It is the tube sandwiched between the scala vestibuli and the scala tympani. |
| What do you call the membrane that separates the cochlear dusct from the scala vestibuli? | The vestibular membrane |
| What do you call the membrane that separates the cochlear duct from the scala tympany? | the basilar membrane |
| Where do vibrations from the oval window go? | through the scala vestibuli and returns the scala tympani at which time it vibrates the basilar membrane |
| What and where is the organ of corti? | it is inside the cochlear duct. It is made of of hearing receptor cells/hair cells and is found on the upper surface of the basilar membrane |
| How do the receptor cells of the organ of corti differentiate different frequencies? | different frequencies of vibrations move different parts of the basilar membrane. Certain sound frequencies cause hairs of the receptor cells to bend. |
| What happens after certain sound frequencies cause hairs of the receptor cells to bend? | a nerve impulse is generated (ion channels within the hairs will cause pulses/electrical signal to be communicated to the brain) |
| How does the organ of corti respond to larger vibrations? | they will bend hairs further and will increase the amplitude of the electrical signal which opens more ion channels |
| What two qualities do sounds have? | volume and pitch |
| How does the organ of corti differentiate pitch? | different parts of the membrane are tuned to different pitches |
| What are the two types of equilibrium? | static equilibrium and dynamic equilibrium |
| What are the characteristics of static equalibrium? | it is determined by the vestibule and senses the position of the head when the body is NOT MOVING. |
| What are the characteristics of dynamic equilibrium? | it is determined by the semicircular canals. They sense rotation and movement of the head and body. They also sense rotational acceleration. |
| How are otoliths affected by innertia? | when you accelerate to move forward, the otoliths move backward. |
| What does the vestibule contain? | The macula (which includes the utricle and the saccule) |
| What are the two parts of the macula? | the utricle and the saccule |
| What does the macula do? | it responds to changes in the head's position. It uses otoliths, a viscous fluid (endolymph) and hairs. |
| How does the macula generate a nerve impulse? | the sinking of the otoliths into the viscous fluid/endolymph causes the hairs to bend. The bending of the hairs results in the generation of a nerve impulse. |
| The utricle portion of the macula detects what? | horizontal accelerations |
| The saccule portion of the macula detects what? | verticle accelerations |
| What part of the inner ear senses rotation? | the semicircular canals |
| What are the two divisions of the semicircular canals? | the ampulla and the crista ampullaris |
| What and where is the ampula? | It is the bulge/swelling at the bases of each of the three semicircular canals that communicate with the vestibule. |
| What and where is the crista ampullaris? | It is the sensory orgin within the ampula. It is made up of hair cells and supporting cells. |
| How are the hair cells inside the crista ampullaris stimulated? | rapid turns of the head or budy stimulate the hair cells. Sensory nerve fibers are attached to the hairs. |
| What fluid is inside the semicircular canals? | endolymph |
| What are the three visual accessory organs? | eyelids, lacrimal apparatus and extrinsic eye muscles |
| What is the name of the muscle that opens the eyelid? | The levator palpebrae superioris (latin for: elevating muscle of upper eyelid) is the muscle in the orbit that elevates the superior (upper) eyelid. |
| What is the function of the lacrimal apparatus? | It keeps the eye moist. The outter layer of the eye is ALIVE unlike the outter later of skin. |
| What are the 4 parts of the lacrimal apparatus? | the lacrimal gland, canaliculi, lacrimal sac and nasolacrimal duct (in order of the flow of tears) |
| What and where is the lacrimal gland? | it secretes tears and is lateral to the eye deep to the upper eyelid. (Ladies, it is where you put your contour eye shadow) |
| What and where are the canaliculi? | there are two, they are attached to the inner corner of the eye. One is superior and one is inferior. They transport tears from the eye to the lacrimal sac. From the lacrimal sac, tears flow into the nasolacrimal duct. |
| What and where is the lacrimal sac? | it is distal to the canaliculi and collects tears. |
| What and where is the nasolacrimal duct? | It is distal to the lacrimal sac and empties tears into the nasal cavity? |
| Are the tears that exit the nasolacrimal duct considered waste? | no, they are recycled and used as the fluid that molecules dissolve in for oders to be detected. |
| What are the names of the 6 extrinsic eye muscles? | superior rectus, inferior rectus, medial rectus, lateral rectus, superior oblique and inferior oblique (4 rectus and 2 oblique) |
| What does the superior rectus do? | rotates eye up and medially |
| What does the inferior rectus do? | rotates eye down and medially |
| What does the medial rectus do? | rotates eye medially (it is located on the medial side) |
| What does the lateral rectus do? | rotates eye laterally (it is located on the lateral side) |
| What does the superior oblique do? | rotates eye down and laterally (down and out) |
| What does the inferior oblique do? | rotates eye up and laterally (up and out) |
| What is the trochlea? | It is a connective tissue loop (tendon that the superior oblique is attached to.) This is the trochlea that the trochlear nerve is named for. Obviously the superior oblique is innervated by the trochlear nerve) |
| The eye ball is essentially a hollow sphere with three layers. What are the three layers of the wall? | fibrous tunic (outer), vascular tunic (middle), and nervous tunic (inner) |
| Two of the eyeball layers are complete spheres. Which one only covers the back wall? | the nervous tunic (inner layer) |
| What is the name of the fluid inside the eye ball? | vitreous humor |
| What is the name of the fluid under the cornea? | the aqueous humor |
| What are the two divisions of the outer/fibrous tunic? | the cornea and the sclera |
| What and where is the cornea? | it is found in the anterior portion of the eye. It is transparent, allows light transmission and light refraction. Light refraction is related to it's curve, it bends light. |
| What and where is the sclera? | it is the tough, opaque posteriar portion of the outer/fibrous tunic. It serves as protection for the internal structures of the eye. |
| What are the three structures found in the middle/vascular tunic of the eyeball? | the iris, ciliary body and choroid coat (the entire middle/vascular tunic is pigmented |
| What and where is the iris? | the iris is pigmented, is found in the anterior portion of the eye, and controls the size of the pupil which controls light intensity |
| What and where is the ciliary body? | muscles on either side of the iris that holds lens in place and changes the shape of the lens. It is pigmented as well. |
| What and where is the choroid coat? | provides blood supply and is hight pigmented (black) which allows it to absorb any unnecessary light that gets in. It prevents light from being reflected (opposite of cat eyes) this feature is necessary for high visual accuity. |
| The space between the cornea and the iris is called the anterior chamber. What fluid is found in the anterior chamber? | aqueous humor (it is made in the posterior chamber and moved to the anterior chamber) |
| What is it called when there is too much fluid pressure in the anterior chamber? | glaucoma |
| Which type of glaucoma is an immediate medical emergency becuase the fluid can't get out? | closed angle |
| What two vision problems are caused by the focal point of the lens being in the wrong place? | nearsightedness (elongated eyeballs) and farsightedness |
| What vision problem is caused by irregularities/non-sperical shape in the cornea? | astigmatism |
| Where is aqueos humor found and what are its 2 functions? | it is the fluid found in the anterior cavity of the eye. It provides nutrients and mantains shape of the anterior portion of the eye. |
| We said the ciliary body is made up of muscles that change the shaoe of the lens. What do you call the radiating folds that look like a sunburst in the iris? | ciliary processes |
| The ciliary muscles contract and relax to move the lens. What type of vision do you have when the muscles are resting? | far vision. |
| As you age, elasticity in the lens is lost and the ability to see near objects is lost. What is this called? | presbyopia |
| What are the characteristics of the lens? | transparent, biconvex (like a little round pillow), lies behind the iris, made of lens fibers, elastic (when young), held in place by the suspensory ligamants of the ciliary body. |
| What does the term accomodation mean? | the changing of the shape of the lens to view objects |
| What is the iris made of? | connective tissue and smooth muscle |
| What is the name of the hole in the middle of the iris? | the pupil |
| What does dim light cause the pupil to do? | dilate (therefore bright light would cause the pupil to constrict) Dilator muscles dilate and constrictors contract |
| How are the muscles of the ciliary body arranged? | the constrictors forma ring around the iris and the dilators are in a radial fan around the eye. |
| Where is the posterior cavity of the eye? | it is everything behind the lens |
| What fluid is found in the posterior cavity and what is its function? | vitreous humor, it is a thick gel which holds the eye's shape. |
| What holds the retina flat against the choroid coat? | vitreous humor |
| What structures are found in the inner/nervous tunic? | retina, macula lutea, fovea centralis, optic disc and vitreous humor |
| What and where is the retina? | it is made of visual receptors whose axons lead to the optic nerve. It ends at the back of the ciliary body. It is composed of several layers. |
| What and where is the macula lutea? | it is a yellowish spot in the retina that has less vasculature |
| What and where is the fovea centralis? | it is in the middle of the macula lutea and produces the sharpest vision. |
| What and where is the optic disc? | It is a blind spot that has no visual receptors. "Your brain is lying to you". It is the location where nerves go through the retina. |
| What are the 5 kinds of cells that make up the layers of the retina? | receptor cells, bipolar cells, ganglion cells, horizontal cells and amacrine cells |
| Which three cell types in the retina provide pathway for impulses triggered by photoreceptors to reach the optic nerve? | RBG receptor cells, bipolar cells and ganglion cells |
| Which two cell types in the retina modify impulses? | horizontal cells and amacrine cells |
| How does the retina transmit images? | upside down and backwards |
| What are the two types of visual receptors? | rods and cones |
| What is the rod to neuron ratio? | 5:1 this makes them more sensitive to dim light since yo don't have to hit each rod to activate the neuron |
| What is the cone to neuron ratio | 1:1 less sensitive and need more light to function, however produces sharper images |
| What are the characteristics of rods? | they are long and thin, provide vision in dim light, provide colorless vision, produce outlines of objects. 5:1 rod to neuron ratio |
| What are the characteristics of cones? | they are short and blunt, provide vision in bright light, produce sharp images, produce color vision. 1:1 cone to neuron ration |
| Which type of visual receptor works like a printer with little dots of color? | cones and we see the net effect of the little dots |
| Why is the image focused on the retina upside down and backwards? | as light enters the eye it is refracted by the convex surface of the cornea and refracted again by the convex surface of the lens |
| Why do we have 2 eyes, and why are the on the fron of our heads? (as opposed to the sides of the head) | we need two eyes to get 3 deminsions and depth perception. Prey animals with eyes on the sides of their heads lack the sharp vision that preditors with eyes on the front of their head have. |
| What is stereoscopic vision? | we have 2 eyes each producing a slighly different retinal image. When the images are combined, we get stereoscopic vision capable of 3D and depth perception. |
| Do all of the fibers of the retina cross over the optic chiasma? | no. The medial fibers cross over and go to the opposite side. The lateral fibers stay on the same side. |
| What part of the cerebrum processes visual information? | the visual cortex of the occipital lobe. |
| OK, this is just interesting stuff from lecture: Why does the lens get stiff and lose its elasticity? | Regular human cells reproduce 80 times then die |
| Why are Henrietta Lack's cervical cancer cells so interesting? (Hela cells) | The don't die after 80 cycles. They will continue to reproduce forever. |
| What is the endocrine system? | signaling systems that affect other systems to maintain homeostasis. |
| Why does the endocrine systems use chemical signals (hormones)? | the effects of chemical signals are slow and last a long time (as opposed to electrical signals of the nervous system) |
| What are the two types of glands found in the endocrine system? | endocrine glands and exocrine glands |
| Which of the types of glands have ducts? | exocrine (endocrine are ductless) exocrine glands have a tube that carry the hormones to a certain place |
| Are glands the only organs in the body that release hormones? | no. everything in the body releases hormones. |
| How do hormones travel? | through the blood stream. They go everywhere. |
| Do hormones have a single target? | Umm yes, but the target may be distibuted throughout the body |
| What are the three types of endocrine glands? | endocrine, paracrine and autocrine |
| How do endocrine glands affect their target cells? | they release hormones that travel through blood to target cells |
| How do paracrine glands affect their target cells? | they secrete substances into interstitial fluid which only act on local cells |
| How do autocrine glands affect their target cells? | they secrete substance to only the secreting cell. (They write a letter to themselves) |
| What are the two chemical types of hormones?(discussed in review) | steroid hormones (non-polar/made of fats/cholesterol)and nonsteroid (amines, proteins, peptides, glycoproteins) |
| Which chemical type of hormone os most abundant? (steroid or nonsteroid) (discussed in review) | nonsteroid |
| What are the chemical properties of steroid hormones? (discussed in review) | non-polar/hydrophobic, have trouble getting through the blood so it has to travel with a protein; however can easily enter a cell membrane |
| What are the chemical properties of non-steroid hormones? (discussed in review) | polar/hydrophyllic, can travel easily through the blood but has a hard time crossing cell membrane |
| What is the difference between a peptide and a protein? | a peptide is made of amino acids, but is too small to be called a protein |
| What chemical group do the following hormones belong to: estrogen, testosterone, aldosterone, cortisol? | steroids |
| What are the actions of steroid hormones? (discussed in review) | cross membrane, combine with receptor in nucleus, activates synthesis of mRNA, mRNA enters cytoplasm and directs the systhesis of a protein(in other words, causes a gene to be expressed) (long process with long lasting effects) |
| What are the actions of nonsteroid hormones? (discussed in review) | hormone binds to receptor in cell membrane, enzyme is activated, the enzyme turns metabolic pathways on and off. (fast process with immediate results but short acting effects) hormone is 1st messender, enzyme is 2nd messenger |
| What system/mechanism controls hormone secretions? | negative feedback mechanism |
| What is considered the master gland? | anterior pituitary, because it affects every other gland |
| Where are the parathyroid glands? | 4 little glands embedded in the back of the thyroid gland. They grow separately but fuse with the thyroid over time |
| What bone houses the pituitary gland? | the sphenoid bone, sella tursica |
| What are the latin neames for the anterior and posterior pituitary? | anterior pitutary is adenohypophysis and the posterior pituitary is the neurohypophysis (probably because it is made of nervous tissue) |
| The posterior pituitary stores hormones made by what? | hypothalamus |
| What stimulates cells of the anterior pituitary to release hormones? | hypothalamic releasing hormones |
| The inside of the anterior pituitary gland has a capillary system called the hypophyseal portal system. What is a portal system? | things can go from one capillary bed to another capillary bed without having to go through the central venous system. Like a "wormhole". |
| Is a hormone feedback loop controlled by the level or hormone in the blood or by the action of the hormone? | by the level of hormone in the blood (this contradicts what was said about type 2 diabetes in class today. Insulin is released in greater numbers based on the amount of glucose in the blood) |
| What 6 hormones are produced by the anterior pituitary? | 1. GH growth hormone 2. PRL prolactin 3. TSH thyroid stimulating hormone 4. ACTH adrenocorticotropic hormone 5. FSH follicle stimulating hormone 6. LH leutinizing hormone |
| What does GH growth hormone do? | stimulates increase in size and rate of body cells. promotes growth of long bones. Acts directly on target organs. |
| What does PRL prolactin do? | sustains milk production after birth, amplifies effect of LH in males. |
| What does TSH thyroid stimulating hormone do? | controls the secretion of hormones from the thyroid gland. |
| What does ACTH adrenocorticotropic hormone do? | controls secretion of some hormones in the adrenal cortex. |
| What does FSH follicle-stimulating hormone do? | drives ovarian cycle in female reproductive system, stimulates development of egg containing follicles in ovaries, stimulates follicular cells to secrete estrogen, stimulates production of sperm cells |
| What does LH luteinizing hormone do? | stimulates secretion of sex hormones in male and female. stimulates release of egg from ovarie, promotes growth of long bones |
| What is the hormonal cause of gigantism? | hypersecretion of GH in children |
| What is the hormonal cause of dwarfism? | hyposecretion of GH in children |
| What is the hormonal cause of acromegaly? | hypersecretion of GH in adults |
| Which two hormones are produced by the hypothalamus but stored and secreted by the posterior pituitary gland? | 1. ADH antidiuretic hormone 2. OT oxytocin |
| What does ADH antidiuretic hormone do? | maintains water content in the blood, causes kidneys to reduce water excretion, raises BP, (if BP drops, ADH is increased to maintain blood volume...controlled by hypothalamus) |
| What does OT oxytocin do? | stimulates uterine contractions, stimulates mammary glands to release milk, controlled by hypothalamus in response to stretch in uterine and vaginal walls and stimulation of breasts/nipples |
| What is colloid (from thyroid gland slide)? | it is a protein secreted by follicular cells of the thyroid and is used to make t3 and t4 |
| What will a dietary deficiency in iodine cause? | hypothyroidism |
| What does T3 and T4 stand for? | T3 is Triiodothyronine and has 3 iodine atoms, T4 is Thyroxine and has 4 iodine atoms |
| What are the three hormones produced by the thyroid gland? | 1. T3 2. T4 3. Calcitonin |
| What does T3 and T4 do? | increases rate of energy release from carbs, increases rate of protein synthesis, accelerates growth, stimulates activity in the nervous system, controlled by TSH, iodine is part of chemical structure. |
| What does calcitonin do? | lowers blood calcium and phosphate ion concentrations by inhibiting release of calcium and phosphate from bones (decreases activity of osteoclasts and increases activity of osteoblasts) increases rate at which calcium and phosphate are deposited in bones. |
| What are the 5 thyroid gland disorders? | 1. general hyperthyroidism 2. cretinism 3.Grave's disease 4. Myxedema 5. Simple goiter |
| What are the S & S of general hyperthyroidism? | high metabolic rate, hyperactivity, weight loss, protruding eyes |
| What are the s & s of cretinism? | hypothyroidism in infants, leads to small stature and mental retardation |
| What are the s & s of Grave's disease? | really strange autoimmune disease, overstimulation of thyroid gland by antibodies, causes hyperthyroidism: same s & s of general hyperthyroidism: high metabolic rate, hyperactivity, weight loss, protruding eyes |
| What are the s & s of Myxedema? | adult hypothyroidism, low metabolic rate, sluggishness, gel like edema that you can leave a hand print in |
| What are the s & s of Simple goiter? | deficiency of iodine that leads to deficiency of thyroid hormones. the gland enlarges |
| What hormone is secreted by parathyroid glands? | PTH parathyroid hormone |
| What does parathyroid hormone do? | acts on bones (release Ca++) and kidneys (retsin Ca++), increases blood calcium levels, decreases blood phosphate levels, stimulates osteoclasts, inhibits osteoblasts, promotes calcium absorption in the intestine. |
| The kidneys secrete erythropoetin, what does it do? | stimulates the production of red blood cells |
| What hormones are secreted by the adrenal medulla? | Epinephrine and norepinephrine (also called adrenaline and noradrenaline) |
| What does epi and norepi do? | their release is controlled by sympathetic nervous system, the increase heart rate and blood pressure, dilate respiratory airways, promote breakdown of glycogen, activate reticular formation so you are hyperalert, increase metabolic rate |
| What are the 3 hormones released by the adrenal cortex? | 1. aldosterone (mineralcorticoid) 2. cortisol (glucocorticoid) 3. adrenal androgens (gonadocorticoids) |
| What does the mineralcorticoid aldosterone do? | increases blood volume and blood pressure by promoting the conservation of sodium ions and water (exchanges potassium for sodium and causes loss of potassium) |
| What does the glucocorticoid cortisol do? | during times of stress unnecessary processes are supressed (growth, immune and reproductive systems) decreases protein synthesis, increase use of proteins and fatty acids for fuel, stimulates appetite |
| What does the gonadocorticoid adrenal androgens do? | supplement sex hormones from gonads, may convert to estrogen by adipose tissue (man boobs), an increase in this hormone can lead to early onset of puberty |
| why are glucocorticoids/steroids given to trnsplant patients? | to supress immune system |
| What systems does the body use in times of physical and emotional stress? | hypothalamus triggers sympathetic nervous system, epinephrine is released, cortisol is released to promote longer term responses (bad for health, increase in infections and infertility) |
| What happens in a short term fight or flight response? | increase in blood glucose, increase of fatty acids in blood, H.R. increase, B.P. increase, Respirs increase, pupils dilate, lungs dilate, blood flow is redistibuted |
| What does the body do with the increase in blood levels of proteins and fatty acids? | the proteins and fatty acids will be mobilized for conversion to glucose |
| What three hormones are released by the pancreas? | glucagon (alpha islet cells), somatostatin (delta islet cells) and insulin (beta islet cells) |
| What does glucagon do? | (secreted by alpha cells)this hormone increases as blood glucose levels fall, controls "starvation" states between meals and during sleep, stimulates liver to break down glycogen, stimulates liver to convert non carbs into glucose, stims break down of fat |
| What does somatostatin do? | (secreted by delta islet cells) helps to regulate carbohydrates by inhibiting the activity of the digestive system |
| What does insulin do? | (beta islet cells)promotes storage of glucose in the form of glycogen in the liver, inhibits conversion of non carbs to glucose, enhances movement of glucose into cells, decreases blood glucose, controlled by blood glucose concentrations |
| What is metabolic syndrome? | decreased response to insulin, but fat and protein synthesis continues to work. It disrupts the negative feedback loop. |
| What two hormones work together to stabilize blood glucose levels? | insulin (decreases blood glucose) and glycagon (increases blood glucose) |
| What is the renal threshold of glucose? (From the glucose tolerance test slide) | 190 ish, blood glucose over 190 will dump sugar in the urine. A diabetics blood glucose level will exceed the renal threshold. |
| What are the two types of diabetes? | ok, this is a silly question. I'm getting tired. Type I and Type II for those of us who feel good about knowing this one :-) |
| What is Type I diabetes mellitus? | autoimmune disease, antibodies killed beta islet cells, pancreas does not produce insulin and the patient requires insulin injections. Also called Juvenile onset diabetes. |
| What is Type II diabetes mellitus? | pancreas produces insulin but the body does not respond, so the body releases more insulin causing weight gain and still poor glycemic control. |
| What does the pineal gland do? | secretes melatonin, regulates circadian rhythms, may control onset of puberty, helps to regulate female reproductive cycle |
| What does the thymus gland do? | (located behind the sternum) acts on itself, secretes thymosin which promotes the development of T-lumphocytes (active in children, shrinks in adulthood) |
| What do the reproductive glands do? | ovaries secrete estrogen and progesterone, testes secrete testosterone, placenta secretes estrogen progesterone and gonadatropins |
| What does leptin do? | supresses appetite, adipose tissue produces leptin which acts on the hypothalamus where it signals satiety--that the individual has had enough to eat and feels full. Some obese people have ineffective leptin or leptin resistance. |
| What do prostaglandins do? | not a hormone, paracrine substances, act locally (don't go thru blood) very potent in small quantities, regulate cellular responses to hormones, wide variety of functions |
| From review, where do all steroid hormones come from? | ovaries (estrogen), testes (testosterone) and adrenal cortex (aldosterone, cortisol, adrenal androgens) |
| From review, what hormones do kidneys secrete? | medulla: epi and norepi. Cortex: aldosterone, cotisol, adrenal androgens |
| From review, what is target organ for ADH? | released by poterior pituitary and affects kidneys |
| From review, where is the round window? | at the end of the scala tympani, it kills noise/vibrations after it does its job on the basilar membrane) |
| From review, what do the muscles attached to the ossicles do? | dampen sounds from inside the head (chewing etc.) |
| From review, where are tastebuds located? | inside the crevice of the papillae |
| From review, what does light hit first? | cornea |
| What is the difference between static and dynamic equilibrium? | static equilibrium is determined in vestibule, senses position of head when body is NOT MOVING. Dynamic eq. is determined by semicircular canals and senses rotation and movement of head and body |
| From review, what is stimulated by rapid turns of the head or body? | semicircular canals (used endolymph and hair cells) |
| From review, what is stimulated by horizontal acceleration? | utricle (uses otoliths, hair cells and gelatinous material) |
| From review, what is stimulated by vertical acceleration? | saccule (used otoliths, hair cells and gelatinous material) |
| Lab questions: necessary if glucose is to be taken up by cells | insulin |
| Lab questions: hormone that regulates blood calcium level, released when level drops | parathyroid hormone |
| Lab questions: mineralcorticoid that regulates sodium reabsorption by the kidney | aldosterone |
| Lab questions: necessary for milk production after child's birth | prolactin |
| Lab questions: basal metabolic rate regulation | T3, T4 |
| Lab questions: stimulates body cell division and increases length of bones | growth hormone |
| Lab questions: two hormones released by adrenal medulla | epi and norepi |
| Lab questions: element essential for proper production of thyroid hormones | iodine |
| Lab questions: pituitary hormone that regulates water reabsorption by the kidney | ADH - antidiuretic hormone |
| Lab questions: Increases the breakdown of glycogen by the liver | epi |
| Lab questions: Causes contraction of the uterine wall muscles | oxytocin |
| Lab questions: Glucocorticoid released during prolonged stress response | cortisol |
| Lab questions: acts on the ovary to stimulate the production of estrogen | FSH follicle stimulating hormone |
| Lab questions: acts on osteoblasts to lower blood calcium levels | calcitonin |
| Lab questions: stimulates the ovary to release the egg | LH leutinizing hormone |
| Lab questions: posterior five-sixths of middle vascular tunic | choroid coat |
| Lab questions: White part of outer fibrous tunic | sclera |
| Lab questions: transparent anterior portion of the outer tunic | cornea |
| Lab questions: inner lining of eyelid | conjunctiva |
| Lab questions: secretes tears | lacrimal gland |
| Lab questions: fills posterior cavity of eye | vitreous humor |
| Lab questions: area where optic nerve exits the eye | optic disc |
| Lab questions: smooth muscle that controls light entering the eye | iris |
| Lab questions: fills anterior and posterior chambers of the anterior cavity of the eye | aqueous humor |
| Lab questions: contains visual receprtors called rods and cones | retina |
| Lab questions: connects lens to ciliary body | suspensory ligament |
| Lab questions: cause lends to change shape | ciliary muscles |
| Lab questions: List structures and fluids light passes thru as it travels from cornea to retina. | cornea, anterior chanber filled with aqueous humor, posterior chamber filled with aqueous humor, pupil (hole in iris), lens, posterior cavity filled with vitreous humor, retina |
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