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Bio 20C Evolution
New material
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Definition of Ecology | study of how organisms interact with the environment |
| 2 central goals of ecology | 1. understand distribution and abundance of organisms 2. recognize/explain patterns in nature |
| abiotic vs. biotic environment | 1. ABIOTIC- non-living, interxn btwn organisms and non living environment 2. BIOTIC- living, interaxn btwn organisms |
| 4 scales of ecological study (cope) | 1. community 2. organismal 3. population 4. ecosystem |
| 4 scales of ecological study: community | def: all organisms that interact within an area *areas of focus: -interspecific interaxns -community structure -community response to disturbance |
| 4 scales of ecological study: organismal | focus: interaxn btwn indiv and environment -considers morphology, physiology (internal mechanics), & behavior (responses orgs have to stimuli in envir...& increase fitness) |
| 4 scales of ecological study: population | focus: the population goal: to understand mechanics regulating pop growth -also looks at interaxns btwn members of a pop |
| 4 scales of ecological study: ecosystem | def ecosystem: all orgs in an area and abiotic environment -expands to include both biotic and abiotic interaxns *areas of focus: -nutrient cycles -energy flow |
| definition: climate | def: prevailing long term weather conditions |
| definition: weather | def: short term atmosphere/aquatic conditions -temp,precipitation, sunlight, wind |
| climate vs. weather | climate is what u EXPECT, weather is what u GET |
| weather/climate can directly/indirectly affect organisms | ex: - temp: metabolism - wind: moisture loss - sunlight: photosynthesis |
| what kind of plants are especially responsive to temp & moisture | TERRESTRIAL |
| global variation in climate (where is it hotter/colder?) | -temp: driven largely by solar radiation - at equator, sun hits at 90 degree angle=warm temps - angle becomes increasingly shallow towards poles=cooler temps |
| precipitation is influenced by: _____ & __ ______ | TEMPERATURE & AIR CIRCULATION |
| precipitation: hadley cell | def: occurs on either side of equator -formed by warming and cooling of air - creates cylical cell of circulation 30deg N and S of eq. |
| precipitation: hadley cell- air | -air heats at eqtr -arms air holds moisture(humidity) -rising air cools, causes rain -cool air flows N & S -cool air sinks (dry air) -warms as it descends, picks up moisture from land |
| precipitation: other cells (PF) | 1. polar cells- at either extreme of globe 2. ferrel cells- similar proccess causes these (N&S of hadley cells ) |
| Seasonality ( caused by, results) | Cause: 23deg tilt of earths axis - revolution of earth around sun Results: boreal & austral summers -transitional spring/fall -more pronounced with latitude |
| regional variation in climate caused by ______ features | topographic. 1. mountains 2. oceans |
| regional variation in climate : mountains | 1. mountains:-cause air to rise, cool, and release moisture -slopes facing water(oceans, big lakes)=wet side -opposite slopes drier=rain shadow |
| regional variation in climate : oceans | -modify temp due to high specific heat of water -results in cooler summers and warmer winters |
| 2 types of marine ecosystems | VERTICAL & HORIZONTAL -like lakes & ponds, zones determined by depth |
| marine ecosystems: horizontal (3 types..INO) | 1. INTERTIDAL- covered & uncovered by tides 2. NERITIC- portion of ocean over continental shelf 3. OCEANIC- portion of continental shelf |
| marine ecosystems: vertical (2 types..AP) | 1. APHOTIC- insufficient light 2. PHOTIC- if there IS enough light for photosynthesis |
| Behavior: definition, cause & development | def: response to a stimulus cause: HOW a behavior happens, what triggers the behavior (stimulus) development: critical events, change with age/learning |
| behavior: ultimate cause: WHY a behavior happens | -effect on fitness - relation to similar species |
| characterizing behavior: 2 basic properties ( a vs b) | 1. innate vs. learned: is it present at birth ir aqcuird via life experience? 2. stereotyped vs. flexible: is it done same way each time or variable dependent on conditions? 2. |
| Population: def | def: group of indivs of the same spp that: - live in localized area - utlizie a common pool of resources |
| population parameters ( DDR) | 1. density- # of indivs per unit in that area 2. dispersion- distrubution within that area or volume 3. resproductive strategy- how and when u reproduce |
| population parameters: reproductive strategy ( 2 types) | 1. semelparity- breed once and die (ex. salmon) 2. iteroparity- multiple breeding in lifetime -can be seasonal (blue tit) or continuous (chimps) |
| demongraphy: definition | def: study of factors that influence population size and structure over time |
| demography: 4 main components that influence size (BIDE) | 1. birth-increase 2. immigration- increase 3. death- decrease 4. emmigration- decrease |
| survivorship has to INCREASE/DECREASE over time? | DECREASE. |
| survivorship: cohort vs. log | 1. cohort- track indivs born in same period 2. log- plot survivorship curves **PROPORTION SURVIVING TO A PARTICULAR AGE CLASS |
| survivorship: 3 basic types (PEM) & example of each | 1. type 1(physiological) curve: young survivorship high, old low (ex humans) 2. type 2(ecological)- surv constant thru life (ex. birds) 3. type 3 (maturational)- young low, old high. (ex. plants) |
| fecundity: definition | def: # of offspring produced -usually limited to # female offspring produced by female parents - life tables usually only female |
| fecundity: age specific | - avg num of females produced by a female of a certain age class |
| survivorship vs. fecundity (similarities) | -indivs have finite amnt of energy -trade off btwn growth and repro -selection favors optimism allocation for fitness (trade-off under selection) -low surv= hi age spec. fecundity -high surv= low age spec. fec |
| life tables are used for ______ analysis | demographic |
| life tables: required info | -inital # born in a cohort (N) -# that survive to each age class (Ix) - avg fecundity for each age class (mx) |
| calculating population growth w/ life tables | If u only consider females.. -(Ix)= age specific survivorship -(mx)= age spec fecundity -(Ixmx)= realize reproductive rate, or # female offspring produced by an indiv female in each yr class, adjusted for morality |
| calculating population growth w/ life tables: survivorship X fecundity | avg # of offspring produced per female born |
| net reproductive rate | -R_0 = net reproductive rate (growth rate for generation) -if Rnot >1, pop growing - if Rnot <1, pop shrinking |
| per capita rate of increase (Rnot vs. r) | -Rnot= generational growth rate -r= instantaneous growth rate |
| calculating r | -growth of a pop=change in # over change in time (dN/dT) *if no imm/emmigration: dN/dT=N(b-d) where -b= per capita birth rate -d= per capita death rate **r=(b-d)=instantaneous growth rate |
| intrinsic rate of increase (rmax) | - r can be +,-,0 - highest possible r for a species - determined by biological constraints - diff spp have diff rmax |
| discrete vs. continuous growth | 1. discrete- pops w/ distinct breeding season 2. cont- pops that reproduce yr round |
| exponential vs. logistic growth | 1. expo- r constant over time & density INdependent 2. logistic- r DEcreases with INcreasing density - density DEpendent |
| carrying capacity (K) | def: max number of indivs that can be sustained in a given habitat -fxn of abiotic AND biotic favtors - k varies with habitat |
| logistic growth equation | dN/dT=rmax N [(K-N)/K] -if N is small, r close to rmax - as N INcreases, r DEcreases - as N approaches K, r becomes 0 |
| factors limiting pop growth (related to density) | 1. density INdependent- not affectd by population size 2. density DEpendent- becomes more pronounced w/ increasing density |
| r vs. K selected species: r species | -refers to intrinsic growth rate - rapid growth -good dispersal - short life span |
| r vs. K selected species: K species | -K refers to carrying capacity - slow growth - long life span - stable population thru time |
| community ecology | community definition: interacting species within a given area - population<community<biome |
| species interactions | - interaxn btwn 2 spp - affects fitness of both - fitness effects: +,-,0 - 5 basic types |
| 5 basic types of species interaction | 1. commensalism 2. competition 3. consumption 4. indirect 5. mutualistic |
| species interaction: commensalism | (+/0) -one spp gains fitness ex: fish attaches itself to a whale, gets food and doesnt use energy to swim |
| species interaction: competition | (-/-) -both spp experience decrease in fitness *niche: sum total resources used by a species & range of conditions it can tolerate - species with overlapping niches compete with eachother |
| species interaction: competition- 2 types | 1. symmetric- each spp experiences the same decrease in fitness 2. assymetric- one spp has greater fitness decrease than other. more common than symmetric |
| fundamental vs. realized niche | 1. fundamental- total possible use of the environment by a species 2. realized- actual observed use of the environment by a spp |
| species interaction: consumption ( antagonitic interactions) & 3 types | - one spp consumes all or part of another *3 types: 1. herbivory- grazing animal eats plants 2. parasitism- parasite removes small amt of tissue from host 3. predation- 1 org kills another |
| defense from consumption- 2 types | 1. constitutive- always presented (weaponry, camouflage, etc) 2. inducible- produced in response to predators |
| mimicry: def & 2 types | def: constitutive defenses have lead to 2 types of mimicry 1. mullerian- spp with similar defenses resemble eachother 2. batesian- spp w/o defenses resemble those with defenses |
| inducible defenses | -variable responses - triggered by presense of predators - defense represents a fitness cost - inducible defense minimizes fitness cost |
| top down vs. bottom up control of consumption | - predators/prey populations undergo cycles 1. bottom up: amt of prey regulates predator abundance 2. top down: predators control prey abundance |
| species interactions: mutualistic | (+/+) -both organisms benefit - not cooperative or altruistic * rare cases where: - both attempt to profit - both are successful * may change to consumptive/competitive (ex: ants benefit from plant for food/housing and they protect it) |
| species interactions: indirect | - 2 spp that dont directly interact exert influence on eachother - influence is indirect - consequence of interaction with another spp |
| keystone species | - spp with effects on communities that are disproportionate to their biomes - exert huge influence - small part of ecosystem but big impact - tend to be top level predators |
| species diversity, measured in 2 ways | - key feature of communities - can be measured in 2 ways: 1. species richness: total # of types of spp in a community 2. species diversity: weighted measure that includes both spp # & abundance |
| productivity hypothesis | -high productivity supports more spp - supported by natural patterns - contradicted by experimental studies |
| area hypothesis | - large areas support more spp - tropics only area with adjacent N/S hemisphere regions - more area= more species - supported by experimental studies |
| intermediate disturbance hypothesis | - frequent disturbance= few species (r species dominate) - rare disturbance = few species ( K species dominate) - intermediate disturbance = higher spp # ( mix of r & K selected spp) |
| role of ecological diversity: community productivity | - net primary productivity (NPP)= amount of plant material available to herbivores and decomposers |
| role of ecological diversity: community stability ( 2 measures) | 1. resistance: measure of how much disturbance affects a community 2. resilience: measure of how quickly a community can recover from disturbance. high response= quick recovery |
| community dynamics (2 views) | 1. frederic clemens: - saw communities as superorganisms - spp worked cooperatively 2. henry gleason: - communities= collection of indiv spp w/ unique physiological tolerances - individualistic view of community dynamics - all about fitness |
| succession def & 2 types ( primary & secondary) | def: recovery of a community after disturbance 1. primary: - all spp + soil removed. (ex: glacier, lava flow) 2. secondary: - some or all spp removed but soil left intact (ex: fire, strong storm) |
| sequence of succession ( early & late, related to r & K species) | 1. early succession community: - poineer species ( high dispersal, fast growing, short lived) -get in quick, take advantage (r species!) 2. late successional community: -long lived, slow growing, superior competitors ( K species!) |
| climax community: definition | stable persistant community |
| clements & gleason on succession | 1. clemens: - SET RESULTS. - succession follows order sequence of distinct communities= seres 2. gleason- VARYING RESULTS - succession result of indiv spp responses - community sequence can vary following disturbance |
| species interactions during succession ( 3 types and sign) (FIT) | 1. facilitation (+): one spp makes conditions more tolerable for another 2. inhibition (-): one spp prevents establishment of another 3. tolerance (0): existing spp dont influence arrival of new species |
| island biogeography: def & 2 types | def: study of spatially isolated communities 1. true islands 2. virtual islands |
| island biogeography: true island vs. virtual island | 1. true: chunks of terrestrial habitat surrounded by water 2. virtual: fragments of habitat surrounded by inhospitable habitat |
| species area relationship | - for certain taxa, spp diversity INCREASES predictability with island area ( birds, reptiles, ants) |
| species area relationship eqtn | log(S)=zlog(A)+log(c) - S= species - A= area - z= slope - c= y intercept( taxon specific) |
| z values for island vs. mainland | -island: 0.2-0.35 -mainland: 0.12-0.17 *islands have STEEPER slopes (z) & LOWER y intercepts (c) |
| equilibrium theory | dynamic equilibrium btwn: - rates of colonization - rates of extinction |
| equilibrium theory: S= species number. As S increases... | 1. rates of new spp colonization DECREASES 2. rates of extinction INCREASES |
| increasing/decreasing S | -INcreasing size DEcreases extinction rate (increase S) -INcreasing isolation DEcreases colonization rate (decrease S) |
| ecosystems | -all species within an area and abiotic components - group of communities and chemical and physical environment |
| ecosystems are characterized by ____ ___ & ______ | ENERGY FLOW AND MATTER |
| energy flow vs. matter | matter CYCLES in ecosystems, energy FLOWS THRU ecosystems |
| autotrophs (producers) | - self feeders - produce their own food - most photosynthesize - fix carbon (inorganic to organic) - most energy goes to respiration - less becomes biomass |
| consumers | - eat other orgs - include herbivores, predators, and parasites |
| decomposers | -consume nonliving organic material - play key role in recycling matter |
| food chain vs. food web | 1. chain: 1 possible path of energy flow in an ecosystem 2. web: ALL possible paths of energy flow in an ecosystem |
| strata of a food chain are.... | TROPHIC LEVELS |
| terrestrial food chain example | primary consumer- plant primary consumer- caterpillar secondary consumer- lizard tertiary consumer- snake |
| grazing vs. decomposing food webs: grazing | 1. grazing: -energy flow: primary producer>herbivore>carnivore - herbivore= primary consumer - carnivore= secondary, tertiary, quat consumer |
| grazing vs. decomposing food webs: decomposing | -energy flow: dead organism/waste>primary consumer (detritivores)>secondary etc consumers |
| energy transfer: production vs. ecological efficiency...production | 1. production: - % of assimilated material that becomes new biomass - (net productivity/biomass assimilated)x 100 - varies greatly btwn taxa |
| energy transfer: production vs. ecological efficiency...ecological (aka trophic transfer) | -overall transfer from 1 trophic level to the next -typically around 10% (90% is lost) |
| eltonian pyramids | - depict flow of matter/energy thru food chains - graphic representation of trophic transfer efficiency |
| eltonian pyramids can be constructed by...(3 things) (ABE) | 1. abundance 2. biomass 3. energy production per unit area |
| Net primary productivity (NPP) in ecosystem productivity | npp= amount of biomass available for grzers/decomposers |
| what regulates npp? | -npp is due to PHOTOSYNTHESIS in most ecosystems 4 things needed for photosynthesis: 1.sunlight 2.water 3.temp 4.nutrients |
| terrestrial ecosystems 2 main regulatory factors | 1. temp 2. water *soil acts to retain nutrients (vs. aquatic ecosystems which dont retain dead things) |
| aquatic ecosystems 2 main regulatory factors | 1.light 2.nutrients (from dead decomposing stuff) *nutrients tend to sink out of the system |
| biogeochemical cycles | -energy flows 1 way in ecosystems -matter cycles in ecosystems -includes: H20,C,N,P,S -cycles can be local (like nutrients) and global (like h20) |
| nutrient cycles | -nutrients=N,P + vitamins + trace metals -cycle btwn living tissue and inorganic forms -often regenerated by decomposers -cycles diff in terrestrial and aquatic systems |
| global cycles | -broad in scale -involve exchange btwn atmosphere and rest of ecosystem -exception= phosphorous - unite ecosystems into giant, interconnected biosphere |
| terrestrial ecosystems | -soil retains nutrients - large regions characterized by distinct vegetation types -each region has distincive temp and precip regime (annual avg and annual variation) |
| biomes: temperature, precipitation, & dominant plants...TUNDRA | *TEMP: -annual avg temp= very low -annual variation in temp=high *PRECIP: -annual avg prec= low -annual variation in prec=low *DOM PLANTS: peremial herbs, small shrubs |
| biomes: temperature, precipitation, & dominant plants...BORIAL FOREST (TAIGA) | *TEMP: -annual avg temp=low -annual variation in temp=high *PRECIP: -annual avg precip=low -annual variation in prec=low *DOM PLANTS: trees, shrubs, perrenial herbs |
| biomes: temperature, precipitation, & dominant plants...TEMP DECIDUOUS FOREST(lose leaves) | *temp: -avg annual temp=moderate -avg variation=high *precip -avg annual prec=moderate -annual variation=moderate *dom plants: shrubs, trees |
| biomes: temperature, precipitation, & dominant plants...TEMPERATE GRASSLANDS | everything moderate. dominant plants: perennial grasses. *temp grasslands appear to be in the "rain shadow" of large mountain ranges w/ deciduous forrests on other side |
| biomes: temperature, precipitation, & dominant plants...SUBTROPICAL DESERTS | TEMP: high avg, moderate variation PREC: low avg, low variation DOM PLANTS: many diff growth forms along equator |
| biomes: temperature, precipitation, & dominant plants...TROPICAL WET FORESTS | -temp: high avg, low variation -prec: very high avg, high variation -dom plants: trees, vines (evergreens) |
| aquatic systems | -nutrients easily lost: advection(swept away),sinking -productivity limmited to regions of aquatic light (photo) -function of depth & water clarity |
| freshwater ecosystems: lentic vs lotic | 1. lentic: -still or slowly flowing water 2. lotic: -rapidly flowing water |
| lentic: lakes and ponds...2 types of sructures with 2 zones each(just names) | 1. HORIZONTAL STRUCTURE -littoral zone -limnatic zone 2. VERTICAL STRUCTURE -photic zone -aphotic zone |
| lentic: lakes and ponds..horizontal structure zones | 1. littoral= shallow enough for rooted vegetation 2. limnatic= too deep for it |
| lentic: lakes and ponds..vertical structure zones | 1. photic= enough light for photo 2. aphotic= not enough |
| lentic: lakes and ponds...benthic zone | bottom of lake/pond( thru both litteral/limnatic + aphotic/photic zone) |
| lentic: marshes, swamps, bogs | *marshes: lack woody plants *bogs: have trees -both have slow flowing water -both typically connected to lakes or streams *bogs: stagnant & highly acidic due to decomposition. many wetlands occur alongside river/river systems |
| lotic systems | *rapid, undirectional water flow *streams=rivers + creeks -river= big stream -creek= little stream |
| lotic systems: linear progression (early/mid/late temp, nutrients, and oxygen) | -early: low temp and nutrients, high oxygen -mid: warmer temp, higher nutrients, low oxygen -late: warmest temp, highest nutrients, lowest oxygen |
| behavior: highly innate stereotyped behavior...FAPS ( 3 characteristics) | def: fixed action patterns, usually come at birth -once initiated, run to completion -inflexible -species specific *responds to threatening situations |
| learning: def | change in behavior as a result of specific life experience |
| simple learning: conditioning | *classical (pavlovs dog) -unconditional response: food/salivation -conditioned response: metronome/salivation |
| learning: imprintingg | -fast and reversible - occurs during a critical time window (ex. geese, penguins) |
| mistake based learning | ingestion of toxic but non-lethal prey |
| high form of learing: cognition | def: recognition and manipulation of facts abt the world -ability to form concepts and gain insights |
| communication: signals | def: signal from 1 individ modifies behavior of another signal= info containing behavior: visual, tactile, auditory, olfactory(smell, pheromones) |
| deception in communication | -both itra and interspecific -to persist it must be rare ex: luring prey |
| orientation definition | def: movement that results in a change of position -taxis: simple orientation |
| migration def & 3 basic types | def: long distance movvement associated with change of seasons 1. piloting- use of visual references 2. compass navigation- use of stars, sun, magnetic feild 3. true navigation |
| alturism def & 2 types | def: behavior tht impacts a cost to self and benefit to another, aka self sacrificing behavior 1. kin selection 2. reciprocal alturism |
| alturism: kin selection | -alturism occurs if cost is less than benefit due to relatedeness |
| kin selection: hamiltons rule | Br>C -B=benefit -r= coefficient or relatedness -C=cost |
| eusociality | -alturism in social groups that have sterile indivs -common in some insect lines (ants, bees, termites) |
| ants/bees have haplo/diploidy | males-haploid females-diploid |
| reciprocal alturism | -self sacrificng behavior w unrelated indivs -more comon btwn indivs w past history of alturism -more controversial than kin selection |
Created by:
jprepeli
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