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A&P Hopkins Exam 2
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| metabolic processes | all chemical reactions that occur in the body |
| What are the two types of metabolic reactions? | anabolic and catabolic |
| what is anabolism | "add" using energy to build things (provides the substances needed for cellular growth and repair. |
| what is catabolism? | chopping things up, releases energy (breaks down larger molecules into smaller ones) |
| condensations synthesis | a type of anabolic process used to make polysaccharides, triglycerides and proteins. Requires energy. Releases a water molecule. |
| hydrolysis | a catabolic process used to decompose a carbohydrate, lipid or protein, uses a water molecule to break a bond, energy releasing reaction. |
| metabolic pathways | series of enzyme-controlled reactions leading to the formation of a product. |
| substrate | is the name of the intermediate(s) formed along the metabolic pathway before the product (end result) is formed |
| enzyme naming | USUALLY reflects the substrate and has the suffix "ase". e.g. sucrase, lactase, protease, lipase. |
| what are enzymes? | protein molecules with an active site for a specific molecule to stick to it. They control rate of metabolic reactions, lower activation energy to start reaction, is a catylist but not consumed in the reaction, are substrate specific |
| what determines the substrate for an enzyme? | the shape of the active site determines the substrate. |
| How does an enzyme lower activation energy? | enzymes stick to exactly the right spot to decrease the amount of energy used. They cannot create a reaction that wasn't already going to occur. Enzymes act like magnet pulling all of the players together. |
| How do you control matabolic processes? | at the First step. e.g. enzyme A. It uses the amount of product at the end of the reaction to control the amount of enzyme A. (feedback loop)(use product of the matabolic pathway to drive the rate of reaction) |
| specificity of enzymes: | some enzymes are not very specific to affect a whole class of molecules e.g. proteins. Anabolic process enzymes=very specific. catabolic process enzymes=not very specific. |
| enzyme reaction steps | substrates A and B = attached to enzyme A = react with eachother to become products C and D and enzyme is unchanged. |
| cofactors and coenzymes | non-protein molecules needed in metabolic pathways. They are another type of catylist. |
| cofactors | e.g minerals, iron, copper, zinc, magnesium or calcium ions that may bind to an enzyme to change its shape creating an active site. Many enzymes cannot function without cofactors. |
| coenzymes | organic cofactors usually derrived from water soluble vitamins e.g pantothenic acid, niacin and riboflavin |
| vitamins | organic molecules needed in small quantities but cannot be produced by the body. Must be acquired from diet. |
| How much faster can reactions occur with the help of enzymes? | 1,000-1,000,000 times faster than would occur naturally |
| what are some factors that affect enzymatic speed? | substrate concentration, temperature, optimal pH, feedback inhibition |
| why does substrate concentration affect enzymatic speed? | it determines the amount of parts available for reactions |
| why does temperature affect enzymatic speed? | higher temps will cause molecules to move faster and create more collisions between substrate molecules and the enzyme(if temp is too hight it will denature proteins) Body temp of 106 or higher will start to denature protein and break down cell membranes. |
| Why does optimal pH affect enzymatic speed? | the "optimal"pH is the pH at which the rate of rection is the highest. A very acidic environment can denature proteins but some enzymes in stomach only function at low pH e.g. pepsin works at 2 but trypsin works at 8 |
| feedback inhibition | When the product accumulates in a cell beyond an optimal amount, it decreases its own production by inhibiting an enzyme involved in its synthesis. After the product has been used or broken down, inhibition is relaxed and formation of the product resumes. |
| what directs the synthesis of all cell proteins? (including enzymes which direct the synthesis of non-proteins) | DNA |
| Why do different cells synthesize different proteins? | it depends on the differing gene activation. They respond to the environment and decide which genes to turn on and off. |
| what is a gene? | it is a gegment of DNA that codes for a specific protein |
| what are ribosomes made of? | protein and RNA |
| what are on the two sides of the DNA double helix? | one side is the gene and the other side is the complementary copy. |
| what are the two steps in protein synthesis? | Transcription and Translation |
| what is transcription? | it takes place in the nucleus of a cell, a portion of DNA unwinds and unzips, messenger RNA(mRNA) is formed next to the activated gene (using complementary pairing). The single strand of mRNA migrates to the cytoplasm. |
| what is translation? | the mRNA is "read" by ribosomal RNA as amino acids are assembled into a protein molecule. Transfer RNA (tRNA) delivers the amino acids to the ribosomes (The tRNA is specific for each amino acid) translation terminates when ribosome falls off the mRNA) |
| what is an activated gene? | a gene that is unwound and exposed. |
| what is gene expression? | using the genes |
| What are the 4 nucleotide bases for DNA? | Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Thymine |
| What are the four nucleotide bases for RNA? | Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine and Uracil |
| nucleic acids always work by__________. | complimentary pairing |
| what does RNA polymerase do? | it is the enzyme that produces RNA. It sticks the nucleotides in the RNA together. |
| What are the three types of RNA? | messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA). |
| What does messenger RNA do? | delivers genetic information from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. It is a single polynucleotide chain. The making of mRNA is called transcription. |
| What does transfer RNA do? | carries amino acids to mRNA, carries an anticodon to mRNA, translates a codon of mRNA into an amino acid. |
| What is ribosomal RNA? | provides structure (creates a frame) and enzyme activity for ribosomes. (Amino acids never come in to contact with mRNA. The rRNA comes into contact with the mRNA) |
| How does RNA know what gene to read? | markers stick to beginning and end of gene so only a specific gene is read. |
| How many different amino acids are there? | 20 |
| How many nucleic acid bases are there? | 4 |
| How many nucleic acid bases are needed in a CODON to create a unique code for each of the 20 amino acids? | 3 (4x4x4=64) |
| do all amino acids have one codon? | no some have more than one and some codons are "stop" and "start" signs. |
| what will the ribosome do when it reaches the "stop" codon? | release |
| why must the anticodon match the codon? | to verify that the correct protein is being made |
| Protein synthesis | look at slides 4-19 through 4-22. I'm having a hard time putting it into words...Maybe it will make sense tomorrow. |
| DNA replication | The hydrogen bonds break between the bases, the double strands unwind and pull apart, new nucleotides pair with exposed bases (complementary pairing), reaction is controlled by DNA polymerase |
| which enzyme controls DNA replication | DNA polymerase |
| what does semiconservative replication mean? | each new DNA molecule has one new helix with the other helix conserved from the parent DNA. |
| How long does it take to replicate all 46 chromosomes? | It takes 6-8 hours using thousands of polymerase molecules. |
| What are the 4 major tissue types? | epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous |
| what are epithelial tissues? Where are they found? | They cover external surface, organs and line body cavities. They have a free surface (exposed to outside or open space), and a thin non-living layer called basal/basement membrane anchoring to underlying connective tissue.The cells are tightly packed. |
| How are epithelial tissues classified? | by cell shape and number of layers. |
| What are the functions of epithelial tissues? | protection, secretion, absorption and excretion (secretion of wastes) |
| What are the three terms used to desribe the number of layers of epithelial tissue? | simple (one layer), stratified (more than 1 layer-nuclei don't line up) and pseudostratified (appears to be layered) |
| What are the three terms used to describe the shape of the apical/free surface cells? | squamous- flat wider than tall, cuboidal- height and width are same, columnar- taller than they are wide. |
| what are the characteristics of simple squamous epithelial tissues? | single layer of flat cells, thin membrane so substances can easily pass through, line air sacs and blood vessels also make up serous membranes. |
| what are the characteristics of simple cuboidal epithelial tissues? | single layer of cube shaped cells, they line kidney tubules and the ducts of some glands. Usually form rings of cuboidal cells with open lumen in the middle (not always able to see structure on slides) It looks like the lumen is the apical surface. |
| What are the characteristics of simple columnar epithelial tissues? | single layer of elongated cells (tall and narrow, sometimes have cilia or microvilli (protein extensions on the cell increasing surface area), often have goblet cells, line uterus, stomach and intestine |
| what do goblet cells do? | produce mucus |
| What are the characteristics of pseudostratified columnar epithelial tissues? | looks like 3 layers but every single cell touches surface and basement layer. single layer of elongated cells, often have cilia, often have goblet cells, line respiratory passageways/trachea. Can't tell this tissue type from a single slide. |
| What are the characteristics of stratified squamous epithelial tissues? | many cell layers, top cells are flat and possibly dead, on surfaces open to the external environment, basal layer will always have cuboidal cells, at end of each mitosis 1 daughter will move up,line mouth, throat, vagina, anal cavity, end of urethra. |
| What are the characteristics of stratified cuboidal epithelial tissues? | have two or three layers only, cube shaped cells, function is mainly secretion, form a ring with lumen in the center, apical layer is lumen, line ducts of mammary, sweat and salivary glands. Also pancreas. |
| What are the characteristics of stratified columnar epithelial tissues? | not a common type, top layer is elongated cells with cube shaped cells in the deeper layers, line vas deferens, male urethra and parts of pharynx |
| What are the characteristics of transitional epithelial tissues? | cells on surface are designed to accomodate changes in side of wall, is stratified due to multiple layers, cube shaped and elongated cells, line urinary bladder, ureters, and part of urethra (only in urinary system) |
| What are the characteristics of glandular epithelial tissues? | they are composed of cells that are specialized to produce and secrete substances. (Usually cuboidal or columnar cells so that can make things) |
| What are the two major types of glandular tissue? | endocrine (ductless) and exocrine (have ducts) |
| What is a unicellular exocrine gland? | Composed of one cell, a goblet cell, to make mucus |
| What is multicellular exocrine gland? | composed of many cells e.g. sweat glands, salivary glands etc... |
| Slide 5-13 has 6 types of ducts on it. I'm not sure this is testable. He didn't talk much about it. I will check. | NOT ON STUDY GUIDE :-) |
| What are the three types of glands? | merocrine glands, apocrine glands, holocrine glands |
| How do merocrine glands work? | secrete by exocytosis, secretion is made in E.R., packaged into vessicles, and released outside the cell membrane e.g. salivary glands, pancreas, sweat glands. (slide says fluid product) |
| How do apocrine glands work? | cell makes vessicles but part of cell wall is included in the secretion. slide says cellular product, portion of cells, e.g. mammary glands, ceruminous glands (earwax) |
| How do holocrine glands work? | cells make so much secretion that they finally split apart. slide says secretory product, whole cells e.g. subaceous glands |
| what always grows over connective tissue? | epithelium |
| where are connective tissues found? | EVERYWHERE! and most abundant type of tissue |
| What are some of the many functions of connective tissue? | bind structures, provide support and protection, serve as frameworks, fill spaces, store fat, produce blood cells, protect against infections, help repair tissue damage |
| What are the three classifications of connective tissues? | matrix, fibers and cells |
| what is matrix? | composed of protein fibers, a ground substance consisting of non-fibrous protein, and other molecules and fluid. Consistency can vary from fluid to semi-solid to solid |
| Connective tissue has three cell types. What are they called? | fibroblasts, macrophages and mast cells |
| What are the characteristics of the connective tissue cell type fibroblasts? | they are most common cell type, large star shaped cells that produce fibers by secreting proteins into the extracellular matrix of connective tissue. (slide also said fixed cell) |
| What are the characteristics of the connective tissue cell type macrophages? | wandering cells that identify and consume foreign objects, phagocytic, important in defense. |
| What are the characteristics of the connective tissue cell type mast cells? | this type of cell grows in bone marrow, travels through blood, lands in an organ and lives there. It is a fixed cell, may release heparin or histamine. |
| What does the term "blast" mean? | a young and metabolically active cell |
| What are the three types of fibers found in connective tissues? (not tissue types...yet) | Collagenous fibers, elastic fibers and reticular fibers |
| what are the characteristics of collagenous fibers? | main function: make tissues tough. They are thick and strong and are found in tendons and ligaments. (NO ELASTICITY) |
| What are the characteristics of elastic fibers? | Made up of proteins designed with elasticity protein elastin). Elastic but not as strong, fibers are branched, they can be stretched and distorted and return to riginal shape, found in vocal cords and air passages |
| What are the characteristics of reticular fibers? | form supportive networks, very thin collagenous fibers (so did they really need their own type!) highly branched, found in liver, spleen, lymph nodes, solid organs |
| Who make fibrous connective tissues? | the extracellular fibers are made my fibroblasts |
| What are the 2 major tissue types for connective tissues? | connective tissue proper and specialized connective tissue |
| What are the three connective tissue types that fall under the "specialized connective tissue category"? | cartilage, bone and blood |
| What are the five connective tissue types that fall under the "connective tissue proper" category? | loose connective tissue, adipose tissue, reticular connective tissue, dense connective tissue and elastic connective tissue |
| What are the characteristics of loose connective tissue? | mainly comprised of fibroblasts, has a fluid to gel like matrix, made up of collagenous and elastic fibers, it binds skin to structures, it is beneath most epithelia, between muscles(deep to layers of epithelium) |
| What are the characteristics of adipose tissue? | it is made up of adipose cells, called adipocytes, which accumulate large amounts of fat, it cushions, insulates, stores fats, is found beneath skin, behind eyes and around the kidneys and the heart. Has poor blood supply. Hard to see on slide (bursts). |
| What are the characteristics of reticular connective tissue? | it is composed of reticular fibers, it supports, holds organs in place, is found in the walls of the liver, spleen and lymphatic organs (not abundant) |
| What are the characteristics of dense connective tissue? | designed for strength, usually along a single axis like dermis of skin, made of packed collagenous fibers, elastic fibers and a few fibroblasts, binds body parts together, is found in tendons, ligaments and dermis.poor blood supply and difficult to heal |
| What are the characteristics of elastic connective tissue? | made for flexibility, abundant in elastic fibers with a few collagenous fibers, some fibroblasts, forms attachments between vertebrae, forms walls of large arteries, airways and heart. |
| What are the characteristics of bone connective tissue? | bone is a specialized connective tissue that is a solid matrix with osteocytes, it is made of protein fibers with mineral layed over top of it, bone marrow makes rbc's, provides attachment for muscles and protection of internal organs. |
| What are the characteristics of cartilage connective tissue? | it has a rigid matrix, chondrocytes live in lacunae (spaces), has poor blood supply and is broken down into 3 types which vary in type of protein fibers (hyaline, elastic and fibrocartilage) |
| What are the characteristics of hyaline cartilage? | hyaline is most abundant type, found at the ends of bones and in nose and in respiratory tract. The embryonic skeleton is made of hyaline cartilage. |
| What are the characteristics of elastic cartilage? | Elastic cartilage is very flexible and found only in external ear and larynx. |
| What are the characteristics of fibrocartilage? | it is very tough, absorbs shock, is found in vertebral discs, pads of knee and in pelvic girgle (specifically the pubic synthesis to allow pelvis to stretch during childbirth) |
| What are the characteristics of blood connective tissue? | Blood has a fluid matrix called plasma, the cells in blood include rbc's, wbc's, platelets. Blood's function is to transport, defend and clot (maintain homeostasis) |
| What are the characteristics of muscle tissue? | There are 3 types, cells are called muscle fibers and they tend to be long, all have actin and myosin filaments (which cause movement), |
| What are the three types of muscle tissue? | skeletal, smooth and cardiac |
| What are the characteristics of skeletal muscle tissue? | often attached to bones by tendons, the muscle fibers/cells are long and cylindrical,they have many nuclei inside one plasma membrane stripes are called striations and are always present in skeletal muscle. It is under volunatry control. |
| What are the characteristics of smooth(visceral) muscle tissue? | cells are long, wide in the middle and tapered on the ends, it is found in the walls of organs and blood vessels, it produces slow sustained contractions, NOT striated and under autonomic control. e.g.bronchioles, trachea, bladder, stomach,intestines etc |
| What are the characteristics of cardiac muscle tissue? | only found in the walls of the heart, cells/fibers are branched with single nuclei (essential feature), cells are bound end to end at intercalated discs. Under involuntary control,is striated. Branching(like a Z)forms web so whole heart contracts at once |
| What are the characteristics of neural tissues? | neural tissue is found in brain, spinal cord and peripheral nerves. Basic cells called neurons and supporting cells are called neuroglia (neuroglial cells)and are smaller than neurons, function is sensory perception and conduction of nerve impulses. |
| What are the cell processes of a neuron called (the branches sticking out of cell)? | axon and dendrites. Called cell processes in our lab because it can't be determined from slide if it is an axon or dendrite. |
| What are the characteristics of membranes? | membranes are simple organs that form a barrier and divide compartments of the body. They are made up of epithelium and connective tissue. There are 4 types. |
| What are the 4 types of membranes? | cutaneous, synovial, serous, mucous |
| What are the characteristics of mucous membranes? | mucous membranes line cavities that have contact with outside world(ailimentary canal, nasal passages, urinary tract) Secretes mucous (produced by columnar cells)"lubes the tube" has some defense properties (foreign particles get stuck) and some enzymes. |
| What are the characteristics of serous membranes? | Serous membranes line sealed internal cavities, they reduce friction, and form transudate (serous fluid). Structure is usually simple squamous with basement membrane. |
| What are the characteristics of cutaneous membranes? | Cutaneous membranes are the skin and they cover the body's surface. AKA integumentary system. (stratified squamous layer with loose connective then dense connective layers |
| What are the characteristics of synovial membranes? | Synovial membranes form incomplete coverings within joint cavities. They secrete synovial fluid. |
| What are the characteristics of The Fasciae? | Fasciae is connective tissue that divides different layers.(Dr Hopkins said keep it brief) |
| What is the largest organ of the body by mass and volume? | Skin |
| What are the major characteristics of the integumentary system? | composed of several tissues, maintains homoestasis (keeps stuff in), form protective covering, retards water loss, regulates body temp, has sensory receptors, contains some immune cells, synthesizes vit D, excretes small amt of waste. |
| What are the three layers of the skin? | epidermis, dermis and subcutaneous layer |
| What are the characteristics of the epidermis? | epidermis lacks blood vessels, cells are keritinized, is thickest on palms and soles, has melanocytes which produce melanin, it rests on a basement membrane, and it is made of stratified squamous epithelium. |
| What are the names of the 5 layers of epidermis? (CLGSB) | (CLGSB) stratum corneum (dead), stratum lucidum (translucent, only found in thick skin), stratum granulosum (has bundles of keratin in granules), stratum spinosum (looks like sharp spines) and stratum basale ( made of cuboidal cells) |
| How many layers does thin skin have? | 4 (thick skin has 5) thin skin doesn't have a stratum lucidum. |
| What are melanocytes? | fixed cells (don't move) that produce melanin. The melanin is then carried by keratinocytes. |
| What 3 major factors affect skin color? | genetic factors, environmental factors and physiologic factors |
| What are some genetic factors that affect skin color? | varying amounts of melanin, varying size of melanin granules, albinos lack melanin |
| What are some environmental factors that affect skin color? | sunlight, uv light from sunlamps, x-rays |
| What are some physiological factors that affect skin color? | dilation of dermal blood vessels, constriction of dermal blood vessels, consumption of carotene containing vegetables, jaundice (build up of bilirubin) |
| What are the characteristics of the dermis? | is vascular and has sensory structures, has dermal papillae (fingerprint), binds epidermis to underlying tissue, has irregular dense connective tissue (irreg. to provide strength), few muscle cells (facial and hair errector), hair follicles and glands |
| What should we know about lines of cleavage? | skin will heal better if it is cut along one of the lines of cleavage. |
| What are the characteristics of the subcutaneous layer (aka hypodermis)? | also called the hypodermis, made of loose connective tissue, made of adipose tissue, provides insulation, houses major blood vessels |
| Where do males store fat? | abdomen, butt, hips |
| Where do females store fat? | abdomen, butt, hips, breasts, back of neck, upper arm |
| What are the characteristics of hair follicles? | made of epidermal cells, tube like depression, extend into dermis, hair root, hair shaft, hair papilla, the hair is made of dead epidermal cells, color of hair determined by number of malanin, have arrector pili muscles controlled by automonic NS. |
| What makes curly hair curly? | oblong shape of hair (round shape for straight hair |
| What makes hair gray? | the cells that produce the medulla die and the hair has no medulla. Gray hairs are hollow. |
| what does the subaceous gland in a hair shaft produce? | sebum/oil (lipid rich stuff) |
| What are the characteristics of nails? | closely related to hair, broad sheets of unpigmented keratin. Parts include nail plate, nail bed (digit under nail) and linula(little moon in Latin), is the crescent-shaped whitish area of the bed of a fingernail or toenail. |
| Where are sebaceous glands usually found? | They are usually found in a hair follicle |
| What are the characteristics of sebaceous glands? | they are usually associated with hair follicles, they are holocrine glands (cells fill up with sebum and split apart, whole cell secretion), they secrete sebum and are absent on palms and hands. |
| Are sweat glands associated with hairs? | NO |
| What are the major characteristics of sweat glands? | sweat glands are also called sudoriferous glands. They are small tubular structures in the dermis or hypodermis that produce sweat. (not associated with hairs) Found all over the body and primarily used for cooling. |
| What are the 4 types of sudoriferous/sweat glands? | eccrine, apocrine, ceruminous, mammary |
| what are the characteristics of eccrine glands? | They make watery secretions with salt. (Body can't make water without salt) |
| What are the characteristics of apocrine glands? | They are found in the under arm and perineum. Secretions include lipids and protein. Good location for bacterial growth due to fuel source. |
| What are the characteristics of ceruminous glands? | They are a type of modified sudoriferous/sweat gland that secrete cerumin (earwax) which has a high concentration of wax. |
| What are the characteristics of mammary glands? | They are also modified sudoriferous/sweat glands that produce milk to feed offspring. Secretion high in carb, protein and lipids, and water. |
| What is hyperthermia? | not fever. Abnormally high body temperature e.g. exercise. |
| How does body repond to hyperthermia? | receptors(thermoreceptors send signal to control center),control center(hypothalamus detects change from set point & signals effectors),Effectors(dermal blood vessels dilate & sweat glands secrete),Body heat is lost to surroundings,temp returns to normal |
| What is fever? | Set point in hypothalamus changes, as a defense mechanism to kill certain bacteria. Chills are related to the recent change in setpoint. Temp under 106 is safe, over 106 will start to breakdown lipid membranes. |
| What is hypothermia? | abnormally low boby temperature. Usually caused by exposure to low environmental temperature. |
| How does body respond to hypothermia? | Receptors(thermoreceptors send signal to control center), Control center(hypothalamus detects change in temp and sends signalto effectors), Effectors(dermal blood vessels constrict to keep blood near core, shivering muscle activity generates heat) |
| How many steps are there in integumentary repair? | 4 |
| What happens during the first step of integumentary repair? | 1. bleeding at site and mast cells trigger inflamatory response |
| What happens during the second step of integumentary repar? | 2. after several hours scab forms and cells in stratum germinativum migrate to edges of wound, phagocytic cells remove debris, due to incresed blood flow to site, more phagocytes arrive, clotting around edges partially isolates region. |
| What happens during the third step of integumentary repair? | one week after injury, scab has been undermined by epidermal cells migrating over the meshwork produced by fibroblast activity. Phagocytic activity around the site has almost ended, and fibrin clot is disentegrating. |
| What happens during the fourth step of integumentary repair? | After several weeks the scab has been shed and the new epidermis is complete. Injury site may have shallow depression but fibroblasts in the dermis continue to create scar tissue that will gradually elevate the overlying epidermis. |
| Is the new scar tissue as strong as the original dermis? | NO. Skin never makes a full recovery. |
| What is pus? | accumulation of dead WBC's and bacteria |
| Where are pain sensors located? | in dermis |
| How many sensory receptors in skin could we be tested on? | Three: Misener's corpuscles, Pacinian corpuscles and free nerver endings. |
| What do Misener corpuscles detect? | light touch |
| What do Pacinian corpuscles detect? | heavy pressure. They are located at the bottom of the dermis or hypodermis |
| What do free nerve endings detect? | temperature changes at the surface |
| How many levels do burns have and what are they called? | Three. First degree, second degree and third degree |
| What skin structures are damaged in a first degree burn? | epidermis aka superficial partial thickness. Causes some edema, dilation of blood vessels and produces heat related to inflamatory process. |
| What skin structures are damaged in a second degree burn? | reaches dermis but not complete aka deep partial thickness, causes damage to the dermis with blistering which is stronger inflamatory reponse. (Can be critical if on hands and face) |
| What skin structures are damaged in third degree burn? | completely reaches dermis aka full thickness, may require autograft (from self) homograft (from another person) or various skin substitutes and causes extensive scarring. |
| What are some life-span related changes in integumentary system? | scaly skin, age spots, less dermis, less sub Q fat, wrinkles, sagging, less oil secretion, less melanin production, thinning hair, decrease in # hair folicles, nail fungus, sensory receptors slowly die, inability to control body temp, less vit D produced |
| What is the most common skin disorder? | Acne vulgaris. |
| What are the characteristics of acne vulgaris? | sebum and epithelial cells clog glands, produces white heads and black heads (comedomes), anaerobic bacteria trigger inflam process (pimple), largely hormone induced, androgens stim sebum production, TX: atb's, topical creams, birth control pills |
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