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Circ., Repro., Renal
The circulatory, reproductive, and renal systems
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| The circulatory system is composed of: _______, ________, and _________. | fluid, pump, vessels |
| Circulatory fluids are divided into two components: _________ and _______________ elements. | plasma, cellular/formed |
| What are the three types of specialized cells? | erythrocytes, leukocytes, thrombocytes/platelets |
| What does blood transport and from/to where? | Oxygen from the lungs and nutrients from the digestive tract, metabolic waste from cells to the lungs and kidneys for elimination, and hormones from endocrine glands to target organs |
| Blood maintains: _______________ by absorbing and distributing heat, ______________ in body tissues using buffer systems, and _______________ in the circulatory system. | appropriate body temperature, normal pH, adequate fluid volume |
| Arteries branch repeatedly until they become ____________. | capillaries |
| __________ and ___________ diffuse across capillary walls and enter tissues. | Oxygen, nutrients |
| Carbon dioxide and wastes move from __________ to ___________. | tissues, blood |
| Oxygen-________ blood leaves the capillaries and flows in _______ to the heart. | deficient, veins |
| Blood in the veins flow from the heart to the lungs where it releases __________ and picks up __________. | carbon dioxide, oxygen |
| Oxygen-_______ blood travels from the lungs to the heart and then the rest of the body via _________. | rich, arteries |
| Erythrocytes (red blood cells) are dedicated to what? | Respiratory gas transport |
| What is another name from erythrocytes? | Red blood cells |
| What molecule is bound to erythrocytes (red blood cells)? | Hemoglobin |
| What does hemoglobin bind to and why is it important? | Hemoglobin can reversibly bind to oxygen. It is important because it allows for oxygen to be transported in the blood to areas in the body that need it. |
| How many molecules of oxygen can a molecule of hemoglobin carry? | Four |
| Leukocytes are also called ___________________. | white blood cells |
| Leukocytes (white blood cells) are _________ numerous than erythrocytes (red blood cells). | less |
| White blood cells (leukocytes) make up ____ percent of total blood volume. | one |
| White blood cells (leukocytes) can leave capillaries via the process of _____________. | diapedesis |
| What is diapedesis? | The movement of blood cells, especially white blood cells, through intact capillary walls into surrounding body tissue without damage to said walls. |
| Leukocytes (white blood cells) increase in response to __________________. | bacterial or viral invasion |
| The name of the double-walled sac around the heart. | Pericardium |
| The pericardium is composed three layers: the ________________ pericardium and the deep two layer _____________ pericardium. | superficial fibrous, serous |
| The serous pericardium is composed of the _________ layer that lines the internal surface of the fibrous pericardium and __________ layer or ____________ which lines the surface of the heart. | parietal, visceral, epicardium |
| The parietal layer and visceral layer are separated by the fluid-filled _________________. | pericardial cavity |
| What protects and anchors the heart, prevents overfilling of the heart, and allows for the heart to work in a relatively friction-free environment? | The pericardium |
| What are the names of the two layers which compose the visceral layer of the pericardium (epicardium)? | The myocardium and endocardium |
| What vessels return blood to the heart? | The superior vena cava, the inferior vena cava, the right pulmonary vein, and the left pulmonary vein. |
| What vessels convey blood away from the heart? | The pulmonary trunk and aorta |
| The pulmonary trunk splits into: the _____________ and the _________________. | right pulmonary artery, left pulmonary artery |
| The ascending aorta splits into three branches: the ________________, the ________________, and the ______________. | brachiocephalic, left common carotid, subclavian arteries |
| The right and left coronary, marginal, circumflex, and anterior interventricular are ___________. | arteries |
| The small cardiac, anterior cardiac, middle, and great cardiac are ________. | veins |
| What are atria? | The receiving chambers of the heart. |
| Blood enters the right atrium from the _______________, _________________, and ________________. | superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, coronary sinus |
| Blood enters the left atrium from the ______ and _______ ________________. | right, left, pulmonary veins |
| What are ventricles? | The emptying chambers of the heart. |
| The _______ ventricle pumps blood into the pulmonary trunk. | right |
| The _______ ventricle pumps blood into the aorta. | left |
| Blood travels from the right atrium to the ___________ valve to the ________ ventricle. | tricuspid, right |
| Blood travels from the ______ ventricle to the pulmonary ____________ valve to the pulmonary arteries to the ________. | right, semilunar, lungs |
| Blood travels from the lungs to the ____________ veins to the _______ atrium. | pulmonary, left |
| Blood travels from the _______ atrium to the ___________ valve to the ______ ventricle. | left, bicuspid, left |
| Blood travels from _____ ventricle to the _______ semilunar valve to the _______. | left, aortic, aorta |
| Blood travels from the ______ and continues on to systemic circulation throughout the rest of the body. | aorta |
| What do the valves of the heart ensure? | Unidirectional blood flow through the heart. |
| The _________________ valves lie between the atria and ventricules. | atrioventricular (AV) |
| The atrioventricular (AV) valves prevent backflow into the ______ when _________ contract. | atria, ventricles |
| ___________________ anchor AV valves to __________ muscles. | Chordae tendinea, papillary |
| The ______________________ valve lies between the left ventricle and aorta. | aortic semilunar |
| The _________________________ valve lies between the right ventricle and pulmonary trunk. | pulmonary semilunar |
| Semilunar valves prevent backflow of blood into the _____________. | ventricles |
| The heart is composed of ____________ and ____________ cells. The former compose 95% of the heart and are myocardial cells, the later compose 5% and are in charge of the initiation or transport of electrical impulses through the heart. | contractile, specialized |
| Heart muscle is stimulated by _______ and is _____________ (automaticity). | nerves, self-excitable |
| Heart muscle contracts ___________. | as a unit |
| Cardiac muscle contraction is similar to ________ muscle contraction. | skeletal |
| The heart is stimulated by the ____________________ center. | sympathetic cardioacceleratory |
| The heart is inhibited by the _____________________________ center. | parasympathetic cardioinhibitory |
| What is the cardiac cycle? | All events associated with blood flow through the heart |
| What is systole? | Contraction of heart muscle |
| What is diastole? | Relaxation of heart muscle |
| The amount of blood pumped by each ventricle in one minute. | Cardiac output (CO) |
| Cardiac output (CO) is the product of ________ and ________. | heart rate (HV), stroke volume (SV) |
| The number of beats per minute. | Heart rate (HV) |
| The amount of blood pumped out by a ventricle with each beat. | Stroke volume (SV) |
| Cardiac reserve is the difference between _______ and ________ cardiac output (CO). | resting, maximal |
| CO (ml/min) = _____ (beats/min) x ____ (ml/beat) | HR, SV |
| What are the primary sex organs (gonads) in males and females? | The testes and ovaries respectively. |
| Gonads produce sex cells called ______ and secrete _____________. | gametes, sex hormones |
| What are the accessory reproductive organs composed of? | Ducts, glands, and external genitalia. |
| Sex hormones include: ________ (males), and _________ and ____________ (females) | androgens, estrogen, progesterone |
| Cholesterol can synthesize ___________, which in turn can synthesize ______________ which can synthesize _____________. | progesterone, corticosterone, aldosterone |
| Progesterone can be further synthesized into ___________. | cortisol |
| Progesterone can synthesize ________ which can create _____________ or can create ________________ when combined with the enzyme aromatase. | testosterone, dihydrotestosterone (DHT), estradiol |
| What do sex hormones play a role in? | The development and function of the reproductive organs, sexual behavior and drives, as well as the growth and development of many other organs and tissues. |
| In females, what secondary sex characteristics appear at puberty? | Development of breasts caused by estrogen, growth of pubic and axillary hair due to androgens secreted by the adrenal cortex and ovaries, and increased deposition of fat--especially around the hips and breasts. |
| In males, what secondary sex characteristics appear at puberty? | Appearance of facial hair, enhanced growth of the chest and deepening of the voice, skin becomes thick and oily, bones grow and increase in density, and skeletal muscles increase in size and mass. |
| What are the three fundamental steps of sexual reproduction? | Gametogenesis, mating, and fertilizaton. |
| Gametogeneis occurs in the ______. It is the formation of ______. | gonads, gametes |
| Female gametes are _______ and male gametes are _______. | ova/eggs, sperm |
| Spermatogenesis (the formation of sperm) occurs in the ___________________. | seminiferous tubules |
| The ______ cells, or interstitial cells, produce __________ between the seminiferous tubules. | Leydig, testosterone |
| The epithelial lining of the seminiferous tubules contain ______________. | spermatogonia |
| Germ cells are closely associated with ______ cells, which provide nutrients for developing sperm. | Sertoli |
| Differentiated sperm cells are shed in the _______ of the seminiferous tubule. | lumen |
| What is spermatogenesis? | When male germ cells divide by mitosis to form spermatogonia and ultimately primary spermatocytes. |
| The first meiotic division of spermatocytes results in two ____________________; the second division produces four haploid ____________. | secondary spermatocytes, spermatids |
| What is spermiogenesis? | When spermatids form sperm. |
| Sperm have three major regions: the ______, _________, and ________. | head, midpiece, tail |
| Sperm are stored in the ________ where they mature and become motile. | epididymis |
| The urethra (the common duct for the reproductive and urinary systems) is connected to the epididymis via the ______________. | vas deferens |
| Hormonal regulation of spermatogenesis and testicular androgen production involves the ________________, _________________, and _______. | hypothalamus, anterior pituitary gland, testes |
| In males during puberty, GnRH is released by the hypothalamus which causes the ____________________ to increase ________ and __________ release. | anterior pituitary gland, LH, FSH |
| Testicular regulations involves what three sets of hormones? The first indirectly stimulates the testes, the second directly stimulates them, and the third exerts negative feedback controls | GnRH, gonadotropins, testicular hormones |
| Sperm are delivered to the exterior through a system of ducts: the __________, __________________, _____________, and _________________. | epididymis, ductus deferens, ejaculatory duct, urethra |
| The accessory glands in males, which empty their secretions into the ducts during ejaculation, include the: _____________, _____________, and _______________________. | seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral glands |
| In males, the urethra consists of three regions: ____________, _____________, and _________. | prostatic, spongy, peniile |
| Prostate fluid is ________ and reduces acidity in male and female reproductive tracts. | alkaline |
| In females, the accessory ducts include: the ___________, ______, and ________ | uterine tubes, uterus, vagina |
| Paired organs on either side of the uterus (i.e. ovaries) are held in place by several __________. | ligaments |
| Each follicle consists of an immature egg called an _________. | oocyte |
| What are cells around oocytes called and how thick are they? | There are follicle cells, which are one layer thick, and granulosa cells, which are more than one layer thick. |
| Uterine tubes are also called ____________. | fallopian tubes |
| The funnel shaped, ciliated, containing finger-like projections opening of the uterine tube called __________. | fimbriae |
| The oocyte is carried toward the uterus by ___________, the radial contraction and relaxation of the fallopian tubes, and _______ action. | peristalsis, ciliary |
| What three cycles make up the ovarian cycle? | The follicular phase, ovulation, and luteal phase |
| Ovulation occurs ________ during the ovarian cycle. | midway |
| During the follicular phase the egg ________ and during ovulation the egg is __________. | matures, released |
| During the luteal phase, eggs that did not mature merged together to form _____________, a gland that releases estrogen and progesterone to maintain the endometrium for pregnancy. | corpus luteum |
| The _____________ is composed of blood and tissue, lining the wall of the uterus for pregnancy. | endometrium |
| During ovulation, ___ and ___ spike. _______ increases before ovulation, starting it, while ________ spikes at ovulation, and _________ increases during the luteal phase. | FSH, LH, Estrogen, inhibin, progesterone |
| ______ starts at the beginning of the ovarian cycle, when eggs are starting to mature and when pregnancy does not occur. | Menses |
| If pregnancy does occur, the ___________ produces progesterone, inhibin, and estrogen until the ________takes over at about 3 months. | corpus luteum, placenta |
| Changes in the endometrial lining of the uterus in preparation of implantation of the blastocyst. | Uterine cycle |
| The uterine wall is composed of three layers: the ____________, ____________, and _______________. | perimetrium, myometrium, endometrium |
| This uterine wall layer is the outermost, serous layer. | Perimeterium |
| This uterine wall layer is the middle layer, made up of interlacing layers of smooth muscle. | Myometerium |
| This uterine wall layer is the innermost layer, a mucosal lining. Has numerous uterine glands that change as its thickness changes. It's upper 2/3 is shed during menstruation. | Endometrium |
| In this phase of the uterine cycle, the degeneration of the corpus luteum withdraws estrogen and progesterone. Blood vessels in surface layer contract and surface cells die. 14 days following ovulation functionalis layer sloughs off. Enzymes stop clots. | Menstrual phase |
| The menstrual and proliferative phase of the uterine cycle coincide with the ____________ phase of the ovarian cycle. | follicular |
| The secretory phase of the uterine cycle coincides with the _______ phase of the ovarian cycle. | luteal |
| This phase of the uterine cycle is when the endometrium adds a new layer of cells, caused by high levels of estrogen. | Proliferative |
| The _______ gland secretes thin, stringy mucus to facilitate sperm entry; mucus more alkaline to promote sperm survival. | cervical |
| During this phase of the uterine cycle, hormones from the corpus luteum convert the thickened endometerium into a secretory structure. | Secretory |
| What is progesterone responsible for in connection to the uterine cycle? | Stimulating the growth of blood vessels, causing endometrial cells to deposit lipids and glycogen in cytoplasm for developing embryo, and causing cervical mucus to thicken which blocks the cervical opening and prevents entry of bacteria. |
| What does estrogen cause in regards to reproduction? | Causes proliferation of mammary ducts as well as the enlargement of the uterus and vagina. Also makes the mucus of the cervix thinner and more alkaline to promote survival and transport of sperm. |
| What does progesterone cause in regards to reproduction? | Causes growth of lobules and alveoli, makes mucus thick, and supports secretory function of breast during lactation. |
| Sperm deposited in the vagina must swim to the _______________ to fertilize an egg. | upper oviduct |
| Implantation occurs when: | the blastocyst (a zygote that has undergone cell division) has burrowed into the endometrium |
| The implanted blastocyst is covered by ___________________. Implantation is completed by the fourteenth day after ovulation. | endometrial cells |
| What hormone is secreted by the developing placenta, prompting the corpus luteum to continue secreting estrogen and progesterone? | Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) |
| The placenta provides __________ and removes ________. | nutrients, wastes |
| The onset of labor is triggered by hormonal and mechanical stimuli. This hormone stimulates uterine contractions. | Estrogen |
| This hormone inhibits uterine contractions. | Progesterone |
| The onset of labor is marked by an increase in the production of this hormone by the mother and fetus, which also stimulates strong uterine contractions. | Oxytocin |
| Mechanical stimuli that start uterine contractions include: | uterine stretching by the fully grown fetus and pressure on the cervix by the head |
| The mechanical stimuli of uterine contractions cause a positive feedback loop by producing more _________. | oxytocin |
| Estrogen, progesterone, and lactogen stimulate the hypothalamus to release ____________________________ which then causes the anterior pituitary gland to release prolactin. | prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH) |
| What is coitus interruptus? | The withdrawal of the penis before ejaculation. |
| The kidneys filter 200 liters of blood daily, allowing _______, _______________, and _____________ to leave the body in urine. | toxins, metabolic wastes, excess ions |
| What is the function of the kidneys? | To regulate the volume and chemical makeup of the blood. Also helps to maintain the proper balance between water and salts, acids and bases. |
| The renal system performs _____________________ during prolonged fasting. | gluconeogenesis |
| The renal system produces _____ to help regulate blood pressure and _________________ to stimulate red blood cell production. | renin, erythropoietin |
| The renal system activates vitamin ____. | D |
| Provides a temporary storage reservoir for urine. | Urinary bladder |
| Transports urine from the kidneys to the bladder. | Paired ureters |
| Transports urine from the bladder to out of the body. | Urethra |
| What is the name of the structural units that form urine, consisting of glomerulus and glomerular (Bowman's) capsules? | Nephrons |
| What is a glomerulus? | A tuft of capillaries associated with a renal tubule. |
| What is a glomerular (Bowman's) capsule? | The blind, cup-shaped end of a renal tubule that completely surrounds the glomerulus. |
| What is a renal corpuscle? | A glomerulus and it's Bowman's capsule. |
| Fenestrated (having multiple openings) epithelium that allows solute-rich, virtually protein-free filtrate to pass from the blood into the glomerular (Bowman's) capsule. | Glomerular endothelium |
| A small diameter blood vessel in the microcirculation that extends and branches out from an artery and leads to capillaries | Arteriole |
| Every nephron has two capillary beds: _____________ and _________________________. | glomerulus, peritubular capillaries |
| Each glomerulus is fed by an _________ arteriole and is drained by an ___________ arteriole. | afferent, efferent |
| Why is blood pressure in the glomerulus high? | Because arterioles are high-resistance vessels and afferent arterioles have larger diameters than efferent arterioles. |
| ________ and ________ are forced out of the blood throughout the entire length of the _______________. | Fluids, solutes, glomerulus |
| Peritubular beds are ___-pressure, _______ capillaries adapted for _____________ that: | low, porous, arise from efferent (draining) arterioles, cling to adjacent renal tubules, and empty into the renal venous system |
| Where the distal tubule lies against the afferent (sometimes efferent) arteriole. | Juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA) |
| Arteriole walls have these kinds of cells which are enlarged, smooth muscle cells that have secretory granules containing renin and act as mechanoreceptors. | Juxtaglomerular (JG) cells |
| Tall, closely packed distal tubule cells that lie adjacent to juxtaglomerular (JG) cells, and function as chemorecptors or osmoreceptors. | Macula densa |
| A portion of the nephron between the loop of Henle and the collecting duct system responsible for the reabsorption of sodium, water, and the secretion of hydrogen potassium. | Distal (convoluted) tubules |
| The kidney's filter the body's entire plasma volume ____ times a day. | sixty |
| Kidney filtrate contains ____________________________ and loses _______, _________, and _______________ to become urine. | all plasma components except protein, water, nutrients, essential ions |
| Urine contains ____________ and _____________. | metabolic wastes, unneeded substances |
| Urine formation and adjustment of blood composition involves three processes: _______________________, _______________________, and _________________________. | glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, secretion |
| What is the glomerular filtration rate (GFR)? | The total amount of filtrate formed per minute by the kidneys. |
| What are the factors governing filtration rate at the capillary bed? | Total surface area available for filtration, filtration membrane permeability, and net filtration pressure. |
| Under stress, norepinephrine is released by the sympathetic nervous system and epinephrine is released by the adrenal medulla which causes: | afferent arterioles to constrict and filtration to be inhibited |
| The sympathetic nervous system also stimulates this in the renal system. | The renin-angiotensin mechanism |
| The renin-angiotensin mechanism (or system) is: | a hormone system that regulates blood pressure and water (fluid) balance. |
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